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Ergometer

An ergometer is a device designed to measure the work performed or power output generated by a person during physical exercise, typically by quantifying mechanical energy expenditure in a controlled manner.^[1]^[2] These instruments are essential in exercise physiology for evaluating human performance, efficiency, and physiological responses, such as oxygen consumption, which approximates energy use at about 5 kcal per liter of oxygen inhaled.^[1] The development of ergometers traces back to the late 18th century, with initial efforts to measure human gas exchange during standardized physical work dating to 1790, evolving through the 19th and 20th centuries alongside advancements in respiratory analysis and mechanical instrumentation.^[3] Early friction-based cycle ergometers emerged in the late 19th century, enabling precise calibration of resistance for consistent workload assessment, and later innovations like Fleisch and Monark models improved portability and accuracy for clinical use.^[4] Common types of ergometers include cycle ergometers, which simulate pedaling against variable resistance to target lower-body muscles; treadmill ergometers, which measure work via speed and incline for full-body exertion;^[5] rowing ergometers, mimicking boat propulsion for comprehensive cardiovascular training;^[6] and arm-crank ergometers, focusing on upper-body strength in rehabilitation settings.^[7] In medical contexts, they facilitate cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) to diagnose conditions like heart disease, assess aerobic capacity, and monitor rehabilitation progress, often integrating metrics like heart rate and lactate levels for holistic evaluation.^[5] Beyond clinical applications, ergometers support athletic training and research into metabolic efficiency, where human energy conversion is typically only 20-25% effective in producing external work.^[8]

Etymology and Definition

Etymology

The term "ergometer" is derived from the Ancient Greek words ergon (ἔργον), meaning "work" or "labor," and metron (μέτρον), meaning "measure" or "meter." This etymological combination literally translates to "work measurer," reflecting its purpose as an instrument for quantifying mechanical effort or energy output.^[9]^[10] The word was first attested in English around 1879, emerging within physiological and medical literature to describe devices for assessing human physical work and energy expenditure.^[11] Early adoption occurred in the context of 19th-century scientific inquiries into muscle function and metabolism, where such tools enabled precise measurements during controlled activities.^[12] By the late 1800s, the term's application shifted from general mechanical dynamometers—used across engineering and physics for broad work quantification—to specialized apparatus in exercise physiology, focusing on human performance and fatigue under load.^[13] Key references from the 1870s and 1880s, including studies on respiration and muscular effort, solidified this evolution, linking ergometers directly to the measurement of caloric costs in bodily labor.^[14]

Definition

An ergometer is an apparatus designed to measure the amount and rate of mechanical work or power output generated by a person during physical activity under controlled conditions.^[15] This quantification allows for the evaluation of human physical performance, particularly endurance, by converting muscular effort into measurable units.^[16] In contrast to standard exercise machines that prioritize conditioning or recreation, ergometers specifically focus on providing accurate, quantifiable metrics such as power in watts, energy in joules, or calories burned, which support clinical, research, and training applications in exercise physiology.^[11]^[16] Essential components of an ergometer typically include a resistance mechanism calibrated to deliver adjustable workloads (often in increments like 25 watts), a performance monitor that tracks and displays parameters such as output and duration in real time, and user-adaptable settings to accommodate variations in body size and fitness levels.^[16] The term originates from the Greek "ergon" (work) and "metron" (measure), underscoring its emphasis on precise measurement.^[16]

History

Early Concepts and Inventions

The concept of measuring human physical work traces its etymological roots to ancient Greece, where "ergon" denoted labor or effort, and rudimentary training devices for simulating rowing were used in 4th-century BC Athens as military tools, though without quantitative measurement capabilities.^[17] In the 17th and 18th centuries, mechanical prototypes emerged to quantify power output, often harnessing animal labor as a benchmark for human effort. Devices known as horse engines, which utilized draft horses to drive machinery via gears and mills, represented early attempts to standardize work measurement, with James Watt formalizing the "horsepower" unit in 1782 by calculating a horse's ability to lift 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute.^[18] These innovations laid groundwork for human-centric devices by adapting animal-powered systems to evaluate mechanical efficiency.^[18] Early efforts to measure human gas exchange during standardized physical work date to 1790, marking initial physiological assessments that would inform later ergometer development.^[3] The early 19th century saw pivotal inventions adapting industrial tools for physiological assessment, such as Gaspard de Prony's brake dynamometer in 1821, which measured torque through friction on a rotating drum and directly influenced subsequent ergometer designs by providing a reliable method to quantify power from any rotating source, including human muscle.^[13] By the 1860s, cycle-like testers appeared, exemplified by the 1796-patented Gymnasticon, a pedal-driven machine with flywheels that simulated cycling motion for therapeutic exercise, marking an early shift toward human-powered prototypes.^[19] Rowing simulators also gained traction in the 19th century as dedicated ergometer precursors, with W.B. Curtis's 1872 U.S. patent for a hydraulic rowing device, incorporating a damper to provide adjustable resistance and enable basic performance tracking for rowers.^[20] In the latter half of the 19th century, German physiologists advanced friction-based resistance mechanisms for precise muscle efficiency studies. Building on earlier dynamometer principles, researchers like those associated with Speck's equipment introduced braked systems; notably, Friedrich Gaertner presented a mechanically braked ergometer in 1887 that quantified work output during sustained exercise, facilitating experiments on metabolic costs and fatigue in human subjects.^[12] These devices, often cycle or arm variants, employed weighted levers or pads against pedals to simulate load, enabling the first systematic measurements of mechanical work relative to energy expenditure in physiological contexts.^[13]

20th-Century Developments

In the 1950s, a significant advancement in cycle ergometer design occurred in Sweden with the work of Dr. Wilhelm von Döbeln, who developed a friction-loaded model that enabled precise measurement of brake power.^[21] This innovation addressed longstanding inaccuracies in earlier friction-based systems by incorporating a calibrated pendulum mechanism to quantify the frictional force applied to the flywheel, allowing for reliable assessment of mechanical work output during exercise.^[22] Von Döbeln's design, detailed in his 1954 publication, laid the groundwork for standardized cycle ergometry in physiological research and clinical settings, influencing subsequent commercial models like those produced by Monark Exercise AB.^[21] The 1970s and 1980s saw further innovations in ergometer technology, particularly in rowing machines, with the founding of Concept2 in 1976 by brothers Peter and Dick Dreissigacker in Vermont, USA.^[23] In 1981, the company introduced the Model A Indoor Rower, the first commercially successful air-resistance ergometer, which used a bicycle wheel flywheel to simulate the fluid dynamics of on-water rowing through wind resistance generated by a fan.^[23] This model marked a shift from mechanical friction or hydraulic systems to air-based resistance, providing a more realistic and adjustable simulation of rowing biomechanics. By 1986, the Model B enhanced this with the integration of an electronic Performance Monitor, enabling real-time data display of metrics such as stroke rate, distance, and pace, which revolutionized training feedback and performance tracking.^[23] During the 1980s, institutional efforts further propelled ergometer adoption through standardization by organizations like the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). The ACSM's 1980 edition of Guidelines for Graded Exercise Testing and Exercise Prescription established protocols for using cycle and other ergometers in clinical exercise testing and calibration requirements to ensure reproducibility across laboratories.^[24] These guidelines promoted uniform testing procedures for assessing cardiorespiratory fitness and exercise capacity, facilitating comparisons in sports science and medical diagnostics, and were widely adopted in professional protocols throughout the decade.

Types of Ergometers

Cycle Ergometers

Cycle ergometers, also known as stationary bicycles, are devices designed to measure and control the workload performed by the lower body during pedaling, primarily targeting the legs for cardiovascular and muscular assessment.^[25] These instruments typically feature a flywheel connected to pedals via a chain or belt, with resistance mechanisms that allow precise control of power output, making them essential for standardized physiological testing.^[13] Key design elements include adjustable saddles and handlebars to accommodate varying user heights and postures, ensuring ergonomic positioning that minimizes strain during prolonged use. Pedals are often equipped with straps or clips to secure the feet, promoting efficient power transfer, while the frame provides stability for loads up to 150 kg or more. Resistance is commonly provided through friction-based systems, such as belts or pads pressing against the flywheel, or electromagnetic brakes for smoother, more precise adjustments.^[13] Classic models like the Monark series (e.g., 824 or 834) utilize a weight-basket friction system, where added masses to a hanging basket generate braking torque via a belt around the 22 kg flywheel, allowing workloads from 0 to 1000 W with high reproducibility.^[13] Similarly, the Fleisch ergometer employs a constant-torque friction brake using differential weights, offering reliable resistance calibration for laboratory settings since its introduction in 1954.^[13] Variations in cycle ergometer design cater to different testing environments and user needs. Upright models mimic traditional bicycle posture, with the saddle elevated above the pedals and handlebars forward, facilitating natural cycling mechanics and higher power outputs suitable for athletic performance evaluation.^[26] In contrast, recumbent styles position the user in a reclined seat with back support and forward-placed pedals, reducing spinal load and enhancing comfort for clinical populations, such as those with orthopedic limitations, while maintaining accurate workload measurement.^[27] Stationary units, like the Monark 939, are robust and fixed for controlled lab environments, whereas portable versions, such as the LeMond Revolution, feature lightweight frames and integrated power meters for field-based assessments, enabling mobility without sacrificing precision in power recording.^[28] In practice, cycle ergometers are standardized for VO2 max testing, where incremental protocols increase resistance in 25-watt steps every 1-2 minutes until exhaustion, allowing reliable estimation of aerobic capacity through measured oxygen uptake.^[25] This approach leverages the ergometer's quantifiable power output to correlate workload directly with physiological responses, as outlined in established guidelines for cardiopulmonary exercise testing.^[29]

Treadmill Ergometers

Treadmill ergometers are motorized or manual devices that measure work performed during walking or running by quantifying speed, incline, and duration to assess full-body exertion, particularly cardiovascular fitness.^[5] They feature a continuous belt driven by a motor, with adjustable speed (typically 0.5–25 km/h) and incline (0–25%) to simulate varied terrains and intensities. Safety features include side rails, emergency stop buttons, and harness systems for clinical use. Workload is calculated using formulas incorporating body weight, speed, and grade, such as the ACSM equation for oxygen cost: VO2 (ml/kg/min) = (0.1 × speed) + (1.8 × speed × grade) + 3.5.^[30] Common models like the Woodway or Life Fitness treadmills integrate with metabolic carts for precise gas exchange analysis in cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET). These ergometers are widely used in sports science for VO2 max determination and in rehabilitation to monitor gait and endurance without the joint impact of overground running.^[31]

Rowing Ergometers

Rowing ergometers simulate the linear, full-body motion of on-water rowing through a mechanical setup featuring a flywheel for momentum, a resistance mechanism, a pulling handle connected by chain or strap, and a sliding seat on a rail to mimic the stroke cycle. The flywheel, typically made of steel, rotates during the pull phase to store and release energy, providing a smooth deceleration that replicates water drag. Resistance is commonly generated by air, where a fan or blades draw air into the flywheel housing to create opposing force proportional to the user's effort; alternatively, water-filled tanks use paddles to displace fluid for a more viscous simulation of boat propulsion. The handle, often ergonomic and attached via a nickel-plated chain or strap, allows users to engage legs, core, and upper body in sequence, while the seat glides along a monorail or rail system, with a seat height of 14 inches (36 cm) from the ground for standard models, enabling a full recovery and drive motion with approximately 39 inches (99 cm) of seat travel along the rail.^[32]^[33] One of the most widely adopted models is the Concept2 RowErg (previously known as the Model D), introduced in 2003 as a commercial-grade indoor rower designed for durability and precision in training environments. This model incorporates an air-resistance flywheel with a manual damper lever adjustable from 1 to 10 to control airflow and thus resistance levels, ensuring consistent performance across users. It features the PM5 Performance Monitor, a backlit LCD display that tracks key metrics including split times—typically the pace per 500 meters—and cumulative distance rowed, allowing real-time feedback on workout progress and historical data logging for up to 70 minutes of continuous use. The PM5 also supports connectivity via Bluetooth or ANT+ for integration with apps, enhancing its utility in structured training sessions.^[32]^[34]^[35] In training applications, rowing ergometers emphasize metrics such as 500-meter split times, which serve as a primary indicator of pace and endurance, with elite athletes targeting under 1:30 per split for maximal efforts while recreational users aim for 2:00 or better depending on fitness level. The drag factor, a numerical value (often 100-130) calculated by the monitor based on flywheel deceleration, allows adjustments to tailor resistance to individual preferences and workout intensity; lower values (around 105-120) facilitate higher stroke rates for aerobic conditioning, whereas higher values (130+) emphasize power output for anaerobic intervals. Users adjust the damper to achieve a desired drag factor, starting from settings 3-5 for most sessions to balance technique and effort, though no fixed formula ties it directly to body weight—instead, personalization through trial ensures optimal simulation of on-water conditions without overemphasizing brute strength.^[36]^[37]

Arm and Upper-Body Ergometers

Arm and upper-body ergometers are exercise devices engineered to isolate and strengthen the muscles of the arms, shoulders, chest, and back via repetitive circular motions. Central to their design are adjustable crank arms, typically 150-180 mm in length, fitted with ergonomic handles that allow users to grip and rotate the mechanism in a pedaling-like action. These ergometers are commonly chair-mounted or placed on adjustable tables to accommodate seated positions, ensuring stability and accessibility for users with mobility limitations. Resistance is provided through mechanisms such as friction brakes for basic models or electromagnetic and magnetic systems for precise, low-maintenance adjustments, enabling workloads from minimal to high-intensity levels.^[38]^[7]^[39] Key variations expand their utility for targeted training and accessibility. The SkiErg, developed by Concept2, replicates the vertical double-pole pulling of cross-country skiing with a wall-mounted frame and flywheel resistance, promoting a full upper-body pull while minimizing impact on the lower extremities—ideal for athletes or those recovering from leg injuries. Handcycle ergometers, tailored for wheelchair users, integrate crank systems directly with wheelchair frames or attachable units, featuring customizable handle angles (e.g., 0° horizontal to 90° vertical) and backrest inclinations (0°-60°) to optimize propulsion efficiency and reduce repetitive strain. These adaptations support synchronous arm cranking, enhancing upper-body coordination without requiring lower-limb involvement.^[40]^[41]^[39] In rehabilitation contexts, these ergometers prioritize metrics like upper-body power output, measured in watts, to track progress and customize protocols. Training often begins at low thresholds, such as 5 watts with 5-watt increments per stage, yielding peak outputs of 40-54 watts in spinal cord injury patients after interventions, which correlate with gains in aerobic capacity and functional mobility. Such quantitative assessments, derived from graded exercise tests, underscore the devices' role in evidence-based recovery without overemphasizing exhaustive benchmarks.^[7]^[39]

Principles of Operation

Measurement of Work and Power

Ergometers quantify human mechanical output through the fundamental principles of work and power, derived from classical physics. Work W is defined as the product of force F and distance d, expressed as W = F \times d, with units in joules (J), where 1 J equals 1 newton-meter (N·m).^[42] Power P, the rate of work, is then P = W / t, where t is time, simplifying to P = F \times v for constant velocity v; in rotational systems common to ergometers, this becomes P = \tau \times \omega, with torque \tau and angular velocity \omega.^[42] The international unit for power is the watt (W), where 1 W = 1 J/s, providing a direct measure of sustained human effort during exercise.^[43] In practice, ergometers integrate sensors to compute these quantities in real time. Force transducers, such as strain gauges, measure applied force or torque, while speed monitors like optical encoders or Hall-effect sensors track linear or angular velocity.^[44] For instance, in cycle ergometers, power output is calculated as P = \tau \times (2\pi \times \text{RPM} / 60), where RPM is revolutions per minute, allowing precise assessment of pedaling effort independent of specific resistance settings.^[44] These measurements aggregate over time or strokes to yield average power, enabling evaluation of physiological capacity without direct metabolic analysis.^[42] To relate mechanical output to physiological demand, ergometer data often converts to metabolic equivalents (METs), a standardized unit where 1 MET represents resting oxygen consumption of 3.5 ml O₂ per kg body mass per minute.^[45] Power in watts approximates gross energy expenditure, with conversions like VO₂ (ml/kg/min) ≈ 1.8 × (work rate in kgm/min / body mass) + 7 for leg cycling, yielding METs by dividing by 3.5; this links mechanical work to caloric cost, such as 1 W roughly equating to approximately 3.6–4.3 kcal/hour, accounting for typical human efficiency of 20-25%.^[46]^[47] Such metrics establish benchmarks for fitness levels, where moderate exercise typically ranges from 4–6 METs.^[45]

Resistance and Calibration Methods

Ergometers employ various resistance mechanisms to simulate real-world exercise conditions while allowing precise control of workload. Friction-based resistance, commonly found in mechanically braked cycle ergometers, utilizes a belt or strap tightened around a flywheel to generate opposing force proportional to the applied tension.^[48] This method provides consistent loading but requires periodic adjustment to account for belt wear. Air resistance, prevalent in rowing ergometers, relies on fan blades that displace air as the flywheel spins, creating a drag force that increases with the square of rotational speed, resulting in power requirements that increase cubically.^[42] The intensity is typically adjusted via vents or dampers that modulate airflow, ensuring scalable resistance without mechanical contact. Magnetic resistance uses electromagnets to induce eddy currents in a conductive flywheel or disc, producing a drag force proportional to the rotational speed.^[42] This non-contact approach minimizes wear and enables electronic control for smooth, quiet operation. Water resistance, often implemented in rowing machines with a paddle submerged in a tank, generates drag through fluid displacement, mimicking hydrodynamic forces with resistance that scales with stroke velocity.^[42] Calibration of ergometers is essential to ensure measurement reliability, typically involving the application of known loads to verify output accuracy. For friction-based systems, calibration often entails suspending calibrated hanging weights from the brake belt while measuring the resulting torque and rotational speed, confirming that the displayed power aligns with expected values.^[49] In air and magnetic ergometers, dynamic testing with reference standards assesses drag coefficients or electromagnetic fields against predetermined workloads.^[50] These procedures aim for an accuracy of within ±5%, aligning with biological variation in human performance and requirements for high-accuracy equipment under standards like ISO 20957 Class A.^[50] For water-based models, calibration checks fluid levels and paddle alignment to maintain consistent drag profiles. Maintenance practices are critical for preserving resistance consistency across ergometer types. Periodic inspections, recommended monthly for calibration in clinical settings or as per manufacturer guidelines, with major service after approximately 1000 hours of use, focus on detecting wear in friction belts, cleaning air fan blades to prevent dust buildup, verifying electromagnet integrity, and ensuring water tanks remain free of algae or sediment.^[49] Sensor calibration for speed and torque, along with lubrication of moving parts, helps sustain uniform resistance delivery and prevents deviations exceeding 2-3% over time.^[50] Adhering to these protocols extends equipment lifespan and upholds data integrity for training and testing applications.

Applications

Sports Training and Performance Testing

Ergometers play a central role in sports training by enabling controlled, quantifiable workloads that target specific physiological adaptations in athletes. In endurance sports like rowing, interval training protocols on rowing ergometers are commonly employed to enhance aerobic capacity and lactate tolerance. For instance, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) sessions involving repeated bouts of maximal effort rowing, such as five sets of 500-meter sprints at competition intensity separated by short recovery periods, have been shown to elicit significant elevations in blood lactate and heart rate, promoting endurance improvements in elite rowers.^[51] Similarly, in cycling, threshold training on cycle ergometers focuses on sustaining wattage outputs near the lactate threshold to build sustainable power. Such training helps athletes increase time-to-exhaustion at race paces.^[52] Performance testing with ergometers provides objective metrics for assessing athletic capacity, particularly anaerobic and aerobic systems. The Wingate anaerobic test, a standardized 30-second maximal effort on a cycle ergometer against a resistance of 7.5% body weight, evaluates anaerobic power and capacity in athletes. Developed in the 1970s at the Wingate Institute, this test yields key outcomes including peak power—the highest instantaneous output, often exceeding 10 W/kg in trained cyclists—and fatigue index, calculated as the percentage decline from peak to minimal power, which quantifies anaerobic endurance.^[44] These metrics help coaches monitor training progress and identify limitations in explosive efforts relevant to sports like sprint cycling or team games.^[53] In elite athletics, ergometers are integrated into talent identification and competition preparation, aligning with international standards. For rowing, 2000-meter time trials on rowing ergometers strongly predict final rankings at events like the World Rowing Championships, with positive correlations observed across various events.^[54] World Rowing endorses such tests for their reliability in simulating race demands across distances from 500 to 6000 meters, aiding selection for national teams.^[55] In cycling, cycle ergometers facilitate talent scouting through power profiling, where maximal efforts over 5- to 60-second durations identify prospects with high sustainable wattage, as seen in protocols scaling power outputs to body mass for uphill performance prediction.^[56] This approach has been validated in programs like British Cycling's, using devices such as the Wattbike to benchmark elite potential.^[57]

Medical and Rehabilitation Uses

In clinical settings, ergometers play a pivotal role in diagnostic applications through cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET), particularly using cycle ergometers to evaluate patients' aerobic capacity and identify underlying cardiopulmonary limitations. During CPET, patients pedal at a constant rate while workload incrementally increases, allowing precise measurement of maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂ max), which quantifies the body's ability to transport and utilize oxygen during exercise. VO₂ max values below 80% of predicted norms often indicate cardiac limitations, such as reduced cardiac output or ischemia, enabling clinicians to diagnose conditions like heart failure or coronary artery disease early in the disease process.^[58]^[59] For rehabilitation, ergometers facilitate targeted therapy protocols, with arm ergometers commonly employed in graded sessions for post-stroke recovery to enhance upper-body strength and endurance. These sessions involve progressive resistance at low intensities for short durations several times weekly, allowing patients to track improvements in arm cycling speed and duration while minimizing fatigue. Such protocols promote neuroplasticity and functional gains, with meta-analyses demonstrating improvements in upper-limb motor function and endurance in stroke patients.^[60] Evidence from clinical trials underscores the health outcomes of ergometer-based interventions, showing improvements in cardiovascular risk factors through structured protocols like ramp tests on cycle ergometers, akin to modified Bruce protocols with incremental workloads every 1-2 minutes. These tests and subsequent training programs have been linked to enhanced exercise tolerance, as measured by increased VO₂ max, and reductions in cardiovascular mortality risk—for example, a 1-MET increase associated with about 15% decrease in events—in cardiac patients. In stroke rehabilitation, aerobic exercise including arm ergometer use correlates with improved fitness and blood pressure management, contributing to overall risk mitigation without adverse events in supervised settings.^[61]^[62]^[63]

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The Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAT) has been widely used since its creation in 1974. The WAT involves performing a 30 s “all-out” cycling test.
[52]
Relationship between 2000-m rowing ergometer performance times ...
In this study, we evaluated the extent to which 2000-m rowing ergometer performance times predicted final rankings at the World Rowing Championships.
[53]
Using the indoor rower for testing: why do we test different distances?
Nov 26, 2019 · World Rowing talks to world renowned Danish physiologist, Dr Kurt Jensen about the science behind some standard ergometer tests and how coaches and aspiring ...
[54]
Prediction of uphill time-trial bicycling performance in humans with a ...
The present study sought to create a scaling-derived cycle ergometer ... This protocol may be useful to cycling coaches and athletes in identifying talented ...
[55]
Validity and Reliability of the Wattbike Cycle Ergometer
Jul 27, 2010 · ergometer endorsed by British Cycling for talent identification and support for their world class programmes. It calculates power output via ...
[56]
Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 24, 2023 · Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) is a diagnostic modality used to evaluate a patient's functional capacity.
[57]
Cardiopulmonary exercise testing and its application - PMC
During the initial (aerobic) phase of CPET, which lasts until 50–60% of Vo2max is reached, expired ventilation (VE) increases linearly with Vo2 and reflects ...
[58]
Feasibility and safety of upper limb extremity ergometer exercise in ...
Mar 28, 2025 · Upper limb extremity ergometer exercise was performed with alternating intervals of exercise and rest, in parallel with the rehabilitation ...
[59]
Ergometer Training in Stroke Rehabilitation: Systematic Review and ...
Ergometer training can support motor recovery after stroke. However, current data is insufficient for evidence-based rehabilitation.
[60]
Exercise Standards for Testing and Training | Circulation
A complete set of protocols can be found in the American College of Sports Medicine guide for exercise prescription and testing. Ramp protocols start the ...
[61]
Effects of Exercise to Improve Cardiovascular Health - PMC - NIH
Jun 4, 2019 · Overall, exercise significantly reduced CVD-related mortality, decreased risk of MI, and improved quality of life (91). Another study looked ...
[62]
Physical Activity and Exercise Recommendations for Stroke Survivors
May 20, 2014 · An aerobic exercise program after stroke has been shown to enhance glucose regulation, improve blood pressure, and improve arterial function.