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Exact trigonometric values

Exact trigonometric values are the precise algebraic expressions, typically involving finite nested square roots, for the —such as sine, cosine, and —at specific that can be constructed using a and . These values contrast with approximate numerical representations and are fundamental in , , and exact computations, enabling derivations without decimal approximations. The angles for which exact trigonometric values are known correspond to rational multiples of π (in radians) where the denominator of the reduced fraction is a product of a power of 2 and distinct Fermat primes (3, 5, 17, 257, and 65537), as established by Gauss's criterion for constructible polygons. Common examples arise from special right triangles, such as the 30°-60°-90° triangle (with sides 1 : √3 : 2) yielding sin(30°) = 1/2 and cos(60°) = 1/2, or the 45°-45°-90° triangle (sides 1 : 1 : √2) giving sin(45°) = cos(45°) = √2/2. More intricate values, like those for 18° and 72° from regular pentagon constructions, incorporate the golden ratio φ = (1 + √5)/2, with sin(18°) = (√5 - 1)/4 and cos(36°) = (√5 + 1)/4. For broader reference, the following table summarizes exact values for sine and cosine of key constructible angles in degrees: These expressions can be derived using angle addition formulas, half-angle identities, or solutions to equations from multiple-angle relations, and they extend to as tan(θ) = sin(θ)/cos(θ). Not all angles admit such radical expressions; for instance, 20° requires roots of a cubic irreducible over , leading to non-radical forms.

Fundamental Concepts

Definition and Scope

Exact trigonometric values refer to the precise results of the sine, cosine, and functions for specific , where these functions evaluate to algebraic numbers that can be expressed using finite combinations of integers, rational numbers, and nth roots (radicals). This contrasts with approximate numerical representations, such as those obtained via infinite series expansions like the for sine or cosine. The scope of exact trigonometric values is generally limited to angles measured as rational multiples of π radians—or equivalently, rational fractions of 360°—for which closed-form expressions exist without resorting to transcendental operations or infinite processes. Such values arise in contexts where the angle corresponds to constructible polygons or angles derivable through algebraic means, though not all rational multiples yield simple radical forms. Expressions may involve nested radicals, as seen in forms like \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{3}}, but always remain finite and exact. These values hold significant importance in , where they enable exact solutions to problems involving triangles, circles, and polygonal constructions without errors. In algebraic manipulations and , they facilitate precise verifications of identities and derivations, preserving mathematical rigor. Computationally, employing exact forms avoids propagation of rounding errors in numerical simulations or calculations, ensuring higher accuracy in applications like structural design or . For example, \sin 30^\circ = \frac{1}{2} provides a straightforward exact result that underscores the utility of these expressions in both theoretical and practical settings.

Algebraic Nature and Expressions

Exact trigonometric values, such as \cos(2k\pi/n) and \sin(2k\pi/n) for integers k and n > 2 with \gcd(k, n) = 1, are algebraic numbers over \mathbb{Q}. This follows from the fact that these values satisfy irreducible s with rational coefficients, known as their minimal s. For instance, \cos(\pi/3) = 1/2 is a root of the linear $2x - 1 = 0. More generally, the work of Lehmer establishes that 2 cos(2kπ/n) are algebraic integers of degree \phi(n)/2, where \phi is . These values generate field extensions of \mathbb{Q} that are intimately connected to s. Specifically, the field \mathbb{Q}(\cos(2\pi/n)) is the maximal real subfield of the nth \mathbb{Q}(\zeta_n), where \zeta_n = e^{2\pi i / n} is a primitive nth , and has degree \phi(n)/2 over \mathbb{Q}. Moreover, $2\cos(2\pi/n) = \zeta_n + \zeta_n^{-1} is an algebraic integer in this subfield, reflecting the Galois-theoretic structure where the is abelian. This embedding allows trigonometric values to be studied within the broader framework of . Exact expressions for these algebraic numbers often take the form of radicals nested to a depth related to the degree of the extension. For basic angles, they appear as rational numbers, such as \cos(\pi/2) = 0, or quadratic irrationals, like \sin(\pi/4) = \sqrt{2}/2. For angles derived from regular polygons with more sides, such as those involving the pentagon, higher-degree radicals are required, exemplified by \cos(\pi/5) = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/4. These radical expressions arise because the minimal polynomials can sometimes be solved explicitly using field towers. The derivation of these values frequently relies on multiple-angle formulas, which can be encoded using Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind T_n(x). These polynomials satisfy T_n(\cos \theta) = \cos(n\theta), transforming the problem of finding \cos(n\theta) into solving the polynomial equation T_n(x) - \cos(n\theta) = 0. For rational multiples of \pi, the roots of such equations yield the exact trigonometric values as algebraic numbers, with recurrences from Chebyshev polynomials providing efficient computational paths.

Values for Basic Angles

Multiples of 90°

The exact trigonometric values for angles that are integer multiples of 90° are among the simplest, derived directly from the unit circle where the terminal ray of the angle aligns with the x- or y-axis intercepts. The unit circle is defined as a circle centered at the origin with radius 1. For these angles, the point of intersection with the unit circle yields coordinates of (1, 0) at 0°, (0, 1) at 90°, (-1, 0) at 180°, (0, -1) at 270°, and (1, 0) at 360°. By the unit circle definition, the cosine of the angle θ equals the x-coordinate, and the sine equals the y-coordinate. The tangent function is defined as the ratio of sine to cosine (tan θ = sin θ / cos θ), resulting in a value of 0 when sin θ = 0 and undefined (approaching infinity) when cos θ = 0. These yield the following exact values:
Anglesin θcos θtan θ
0°010
90°10undefined
180°0-10
270°-10undefined
360°010
The signs of sine, cosine, and tangent in the four quadrants are determined by the signs of the x- and y-coordinates on the unit circle, providing a framework for extending these axis-aligned values to nearby angles.
Quadrantsin θcos θtan θ
I (0°–90°)+++
II (90°–180°)+––
III (180°–270°)––+
IV (270°–360°)–+–

30° and 60°

The exact trigonometric values for angles of 30° and 60° are derived from the 30-60-90 right triangle, which arises by bisecting an equilateral triangle along its altitude. Consider an equilateral triangle with all sides of length 2 and all angles of 60°; drawing the altitude from one vertex to the opposite side bisects both the base (into segments of length 1) and the 60° angle (into two 30° angles), yielding a right triangle with angles 30°, 60°, and 90°. The altitude length, which serves as the side opposite the 60° angle, is calculated using the Pythagorean theorem as \sqrt{2^2 - 1^2} = \sqrt{3}. Thus, the sides of the 30-60-90 triangle are in the ratio $1 : \sqrt{3} : 2, with the side of length 1 opposite the 30° angle, \sqrt{3} opposite the 60° angle, and 2 as the hypotenuse. These side ratios directly yield the exact trigonometric functions via the definitions in right triangles: opposite over hypotenuse for sine and cosine, and opposite over adjacent for tangent. For 30°, \sin 30^\circ = \frac{1}{2}, \cos 30^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}, and \tan 30^\circ = \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}. For 60°, \sin 60^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}, \cos 60^\circ = \frac{1}{2}, and \tan 60^\circ = \sqrt{3}. Since 30° and 60° are complementary angles (summing to 90°), the cofunction identities confirm the relationships \sin 60^\circ = \cos 30^\circ and \cos 60^\circ = \sin 30^\circ, with \tan 60^\circ = \cot 30^\circ. The values for the supplementary angles 150° ($180^\circ - 30^\circ) and 120° ($180^\circ - 60^\circ) follow from the supplementary angle identities: \sin(180^\circ - \theta) = \sin \theta, \cos(180^\circ - \theta) = -\cos \theta, and \tan(180^\circ - \theta) = -\tan \theta. The table below summarizes these exact values:
Angle \theta\sin \theta\cos \theta\tan \theta
30°\frac{1}{2}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}
60°\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{3}
120°\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}-\frac{1}{2}-\sqrt{3}
150°\frac{1}{2}-\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}-\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}

45°

The angle of 45° is constructible using straightedge and compass, arising from the , also known as the 45-45-90 triangle, where the two acute angles are equal and the measures 90°. In this triangle, the legs are of equal length; assuming each leg has length 1, the hypotenuse is \sqrt{2} by the : \sqrt{1^2 + 1^2} = \sqrt{2}. For \theta = 45^\circ, the exact trigonometric values are derived from these side lengths relative to the . Thus, \sin 45^\circ = \frac{\text{[opposite](/page/The_Opposite)}}{\text{[hypotenuse](/page/Hypotenuse)}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} and \cos 45^\circ = \frac{\text{adjacent}}{\text{[hypotenuse](/page/Hypotenuse)}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}. Additionally, \tan 45^\circ = \frac{\text{[opposite](/page/The_Opposite)}}{\text{adjacent}} = \frac{1}{1} = 1, a rational value that also represents the of the line y = x in the coordinate plane. The values for angles coterminal with 45° or in other quadrants follow from the unit circle, where the reference angle is 45° and signs are determined by the quadrant. In the second quadrant, for 135° ($180^\circ - 45^\circ), \sin 135^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} (positive), \cos 135^\circ = -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} (negative), and \tan 135^\circ = -1. In the third quadrant, for 225° ($180^\circ + 45^\circ), all functions are negative: \sin 225^\circ = -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}, \cos 225^\circ = -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}, and \tan 225^\circ = 1. Finally, in the fourth quadrant, for 315° ($360^\circ - 45^\circ), \sin 315^\circ = -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} (negative), \cos 315^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} (positive), and \tan 315^\circ = -1.
Angle\sin \theta\cos \theta\tan \theta
45°\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}1
135°\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}-1
225°-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}1
315°-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}-1

Constructibility and Derivation

Criteria for Constructible Angles

In the context of compass and straightedge constructions, an angle θ is constructible if the length cos θ (assuming a unit circle) is a constructible number, meaning it lies in a field extension of the rationals ℚ obtained by adjoining square roots a finite number of times. For angles of the form θ = 360°/n (or equivalently 2π/n radians in the unit circle), this constructibility is equivalent to the constructibility of a regular n-gon, as the vertices of such a polygon can be located precisely when the central angle θ allows the side lengths and diagonals to be constructed from the radius. The precise criterion is given by the Gauss–Wantzel theorem, which states that a regular n-gon is constructible with compass and straightedge if and only if n = 2^k ⋅ p_1 ⋅ p_2 ⋯ p_t, where k ≥ 0 is an integer and the p_i are distinct Fermat primes (primes of the form 2^{2^j} + 1 for nonnegative integers j). The known Fermat primes are 3, 5, 17, 257, and 65537; it is unknown whether any others exist. This theorem combines Carl Friedrich Gauss's 1801 sufficient condition (proved via cyclotomic fields) with Pierre Wantzel's 1837 proof of necessity (using field degrees). Algebraically, the constructibility condition arises from the degree of the minimal polynomial of cos θ = cos(2π/n) over ℚ, which is φ(n)/2, where φ is (for n > 2). A number is constructible it lies in an extension of ℚ of 2^r for some nonnegative r; thus, φ(n)/2 must be a power of 2. This degree condition is equivalent to the form of n in the Gauss–Wantzel theorem. For instance, when n = 2m with m odd, the degree simplifies to φ(2m)/2 = φ(m)/2, aligning with the theorem's restrictions on the odd prime factors of n. Examples of constructible n include 3 (φ(3)/2 = 1 = 2^0), 4 (φ(4)/2 = 1), 5 (φ(5)/2 = 2 = 2^1), 6 (φ(6)/2 = 1), 8 (φ(8)/2 = 2), 10 (φ(10)/2 = 2), 12 (φ(12)/2 = 2), (φ(15)/2 = 4 = 2^2), (φ(16)/2 = 4), 17 (φ(17)/2 = 8 = 2^3), 20 (φ(20)/2 = 4), and (φ(24)/2 = 4). Non-constructible examples include (φ(7)/2 = 3, not a power of 2), 9 (φ(9)/2 = 3), 11 (φ(11)/2 = 5), (φ(13)/2 = 6), and (φ(14)/2 = 3). These cases illustrate how repeated prime factors (like 3^2 in 9) or non-Fermat odd primes (like ) prevent the degree from being a power of 2.

Values from Pentagon: 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°

The exact trigonometric values for the angles 18°, 36°, 54°, and 72° arise from the geometry of the regular pentagon, where these angles correspond to central or vertex angles divided by the pentagon's five equal sides. In a unit circle circumscribing a regular pentagon, the ratio of a diagonal to a side equals the golden ratio \phi = \frac{1 + \sqrt{5}}{2}, which directly influences the cosine and sine functions at these angles through trigonometric identities derived from the pentagon's symmetries. To derive these values, consider a regular inscribed in a . The between adjacent is 72°. Drawing diagonals forms isosceles triangles with of 36° and base of 72°. Applying the in such a triangle (with 108°, 36°, and 36° at vertices A, F, D respectively, and sides opposite accordingly) yields \frac{AD}{AF} = \frac{\sin 108^\circ}{\sin 36^\circ} = \frac{\sin 72^\circ}{\sin 36^\circ} = 2 \cos 36^\circ. Since \frac{AD}{AF} = \phi, it follows that $2 \cos 36^\circ = \phi, so \cos 36^\circ = \frac{\phi}{2} = \frac{\sqrt{5} + 1}{4}. Using the Pythagorean identity, \sin 36^\circ = \sqrt{1 - \cos^2 36^\circ} = \sqrt{\frac{10 - 2\sqrt{5}}{16}} = \frac{\sqrt{10 - 2\sqrt{5}}}{4}. The double-angle formula provides \cos 72^\circ = 2 \cos^2 36^\circ - 1 = 2 \left( \frac{\sqrt{5} + 1}{4} \right)^2 - 1 = \frac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{4}, and \sin 72^\circ = 2 \sin 36^\circ \cos 36^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{10 + 2\sqrt{5}}}{4}. For 18° and 54°, use complementary angles: \sin 18^\circ = \cos 72^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{4}, \cos 18^\circ = \sin 72^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{10 + 2\sqrt{5}}}{4}, \sin 54^\circ = \cos 36^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{5} + 1}{4}, and \cos 54^\circ = \sin 36^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{10 - 2\sqrt{5}}}{4}. Tangent values follow from the ratio of sine to cosine; for example, \tan 18^\circ = \frac{\sin 18^\circ}{\cos 18^\circ} = \frac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{\sqrt{10 + 2\sqrt{5}}}. These expressions can be rationalized or simplified further, but they highlight the pentagon's role in generating algebraic numbers of degree 4 over the rationals via quadratic extensions involving \sqrt{5}.
Angle\sin \theta\cos \theta\tan \theta
18°\frac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{4}\frac{\sqrt{10 + 2\sqrt{5}}}{4}\frac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{\sqrt{10 + 2\sqrt{5}}}
36°\frac{\sqrt{10 - 2\sqrt{5}}}{4}\frac{\sqrt{5} + 1}{4}\sqrt{5 - 2\sqrt{5}} (simplified form)
54°\frac{\sqrt{5} + 1}{4}\frac{\sqrt{10 - 2\sqrt{5}}}{4}\sqrt{5 + 2\sqrt{5}} (simplified form)
72°\frac{\sqrt{10 + 2\sqrt{5}}}{4}\frac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{4}\sqrt{5 + 2\sqrt{5}} (simplified form)
Note: Tangent values for °, °, and ° are derived similarly and often expressed in denested forms for simplicity.

Remaining Constructible Multiples of 3°

The remaining constructible multiples of 3° beyond the basic angles and pentagon-derived values can be obtained through combinations using angle addition and formulas, which preserve exact expressions when applied to known constructible angles. These formulas are given by \sin(a \pm b) = \sin a \cos b \pm \cos a \sin b, \quad \cos(a \pm b) = \cos a \cos b \mp \sin a \sin b. Such operations yield exact values for angles like 15°, 75°, 105°, and further multiples such as 9° and 27°, all of which are constructible since they arise from field extensions of degree a power of 2 over . For 15°, expressed as 45° - 30°, the values are \sin 15^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{6} - \sqrt{2}}{4}, \quad \cos 15^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{6} + \sqrt{2}}{4}, derived by substituting the known exact values \sin 45^\circ = \cos 45^\circ = \sqrt{2}/2, \sin 30^\circ = 1/2, and \cos 30^\circ = \sqrt{3}/2 into the subtraction formulas. Similarly, for 75° = 45° + 30°, the addition formulas give \sin 75^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{6} + \sqrt{2}}{4}, \quad \cos 75^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{6} - \sqrt{2}}{4}. These expressions simplify directly without further nesting due to the simplicity of the input angles. Angles like 105° = 60° + 45° follow analogously, yielding \sin 105^\circ = \sin(180^\circ - 75^\circ) = \sin 75^\circ and \cos 105^\circ = -\cos 75^\circ, combining previously derived values with supplementary angle identities. For 135° = 90° + 45°, the results are \sin 135^\circ = \sin 45^\circ = \sqrt{2}/2 and \cos 135^\circ = -\cos 45^\circ = -\sqrt{2}/2, directly from basic quadrant adjustments. These combinations demonstrate how addition and subtraction extend the set of exact values while maintaining constructibility. More involved multiples, such as 27° = 45° - 18°, require subtracting a pentagon-derived angle (18°), where \sin 18^\circ = (\sqrt{5} - 1)/4 and \cos 18^\circ = \sqrt{10 + 2\sqrt{5}}/4. Applying the subtraction formulas produces nested radicals, for example, \sin 27^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{8 - 2\sqrt{10 - 2\sqrt{5}}}}{4}. This nesting arises from the product terms in the identities. For 9°, one approach solves the triple-angle formula \sin 27^\circ = 3\sin 9^\circ - 4\sin^3 9^\circ as a cubic equation in \sin 9^\circ, yielding the exact value \sin 9^\circ = \frac{\sqrt{8 - 2\sqrt{10 + 2\sqrt{5}}}}{4}, which involves deeper nesting reflective of the degree-3 extension in the minimal polynomial. These methods highlight the algebraic closure under addition formulas for constructible angles that are multiples of 3°.

Half-Angle Constructions

Half-angle constructions provide a method to derive exact trigonometric values for angles that are halves of previously known angles, enabling the generation of values for angles like 22.5° and 11.25° through iterative application starting from basic constructible angles such as 45°. The fundamental half-angle formulas express the sine, cosine, and tangent of θ/2 in terms of the cosine or sine of θ: \sin\left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) = \pm \sqrt{\frac{1 - \cos \theta}{2}} \cos\left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) = \pm \sqrt{\frac{1 + \cos \theta}{2}} \tan\left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) = \frac{\sin \theta}{1 + \cos \theta} = \frac{1 - \cos \theta}{\sin \theta} These formulas originate from the double-angle identities by solving for the half-angle terms, with the sign of the square root determined by the quadrant in which θ/2 lies—for instance, positive for sine and cosine when θ/2 is in the first quadrant. A representative example is the derivation of exact values for 22.5°, which is half of 45°. Using the half-angle formula for sine with θ = 45° and cos 45° = √2 / 2, \sin 22.5^\circ = \sqrt{\frac{1 - \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}}{2}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 - \sqrt{2}}{4}} = \frac{\sqrt{2 - \sqrt{2}}}{2}, where the positive sign is chosen since 22.5° is in the first quadrant. Similarly, for cosine, \cos 22.5^\circ = \sqrt{\frac{1 + \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}}{2}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 + \sqrt{2}}{4}} = \frac{\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}}}{2}. The tangent follows from the formula, yielding tan 22.5° = √2 - 1. For 67.5°, which is the complement of 22.5° (90° - 22.5°), the values are 67.5° = 22.5° = √(2 + √2)/2 and 67.5° = 22.5° = √(2 - √2)/2, leveraging the co-function identities alongside the half-angle results. Iterative application of these formulas allows construction of values for further bisections, such as 11.25° from 22.5°. Substituting θ = 22.5° into the sine half-angle formula gives \sin 11.25^\circ = \sqrt{\frac{1 - \cos 22.5^\circ}{2}} = \sqrt{\frac{1 - \frac{\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}}}{2}}{2}} = \frac{\sqrt{2 - \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}}}}{2}, with continued nesting for smaller angles; the positive sign applies in the first quadrant. This process demonstrates how half-angle constructions build increasingly precise exact expressions from initial known values.

Values from 17-gon

The exact trigonometric values associated with the regular 17-gon arise from the central angle \theta = \frac{360^\circ}{17} \approx 21.176^\circ and its multiples, such as $3\theta \approx 63.529^\circ. These values are derived from the 17th roots of unity, where \cos \frac{2\pi}{17} represents the real part of a primitive 17th root of unity, e^{2\pi i /17}. Since 17 is a Fermat prime, these cosines are algebraic numbers of degree 8 over the rationals, satisfying an irreducible 8th-degree minimal polynomial obtained from the 17th cyclotomic polynomial via the transformation $2\cos(2\pi k /17) for k=1,2,4,8. In 1796, at the age of 19, proved the constructibility of the regular 17-gon using and , leveraging properties of cyclotomic fields to show that the coordinates of its vertices lie in a of degree $2^4 = 16 over the rationals, resolvable by successive quadratic extensions. This breakthrough, detailed in his 1801 work , marked the first explicit demonstration of a regular n-gon construction for n neither a product of 2 and distinct Fermat primes nor previously known. Gauss's approach reduced the problem to solving the cyclotomic equation \Phi_{17}(x) = 0, where the real parts yield the cosine values through Gauss periods—sums of roots of unity grouped by quadratic subfields. The explicit radical expressions for these cosines involve nested square roots, reflecting the tower of extensions in the \mathbb{[Q](/page/Q)}(\zeta_{17}). Explicit radical expressions for these values are highly nested and can be found by resolving the periods from the cubic equations, resulting in expressions involving multiple layers of square roots. Similar nested expressions exist for \cos\frac{4\pi}{17}, \cos\frac{6\pi}{17}, and higher multiples up to \cos\frac{8\pi}{17}, all verifiable as the three real of an auxiliary cubic after period summation. For the periods, which are quadratic combinations, they satisfy cubics such as $8x^3 + 4x^2 - 4x - 1 = 0. Sine values for these angles follow directly from the identity \sin \theta = \cos\left(90^\circ - \theta\right), yielding comparable nested radical forms; for example, \sin\frac{2\pi}{17} can be expressed using square roots involving auxiliaries like \sqrt{17 \pm \sqrt{17}} and further nestings derived from the cosine. values are obtained secondarily via \tan \theta = \frac{\sin \theta}{\cos \theta}, resulting in ratios of these radical expressions, though they are less commonly tabulated due to increased complexity. These constructions highlight the boundary of ruler-and-compass solvability for .

Limitations and Non-Constructible Cases

Impossibility for 1°

The angle 1° corresponds to a in a regular 360-gon, where 360 = 2³ × 3² × 5 factors with an odd prime squared, violating the condition for constructibility under the . This states that a regular n-gon is constructible with compass and straightedge n = 2<sup>k</sup> times a product of distinct Fermat primes, equivalently if φ(n) is a power of 2. For n = 360, φ(360) = 360 × (1 − 1/2) × (1 − 1/3) × (1 − 1/5) = 96 = 2<sup>5</sup> × 3, which is not a power of 2. Consequently, the vertices of the regular 360-gon, including coordinates involving cos(1°) and sin(1°), lie outside the field of constructible numbers, which are obtained via successive quadratic extensions (nested square roots) from . The value cos(1°) generates a field extension Q(cos(1°)) over Q of degree φ(360)/2 = 48, as this is the degree of the minimal polynomial for 2cos(2π/360) = 2cos(1°). Since 48 = 2<sup>4</sup> × 3 is not a power of 2, cos(1°) cannot lie in any tower of quadratic extensions, confirming it is not expressible via nested square roots over Q. A proof sketch using the triple-angle formula illustrates the obstruction. Let θ = 1°, so cos(3θ) = 4cos³(θ) − 3cos(θ), or $4x^3 - 3x - \cos(3^\circ) = 0, where x = cos(1°). The angle 3° corresponds to a regular 120-gon, with n = 120 = 2³ × 3 × 5, φ(120) = 32 = 2<sup>5</sup> a power of 2, so cos(3°) is constructible and lies in a degree-16 extension Q(cos(3°))/Q. The above cubic is the minimal polynomial of cos(1°) over Q(cos(3°)), as [Q(cos(1°)):Q] = 48 = 3 × 16 and 3 is prime, implying irreducibility (the degree cannot be 1, since cos(1°) ∉ Q(cos(3°))). Solving an irreducible cubic requires a cube root extraction, which cannot be reduced to square roots, thus preventing expression of cos(1°) solely via square roots. Numerically, cos(1°) ≈ 0.9998476952, but no finite expression using only arithmetic operations and square roots exists. Implications include the need for higher-index radicals (e.g., cube roots), infinite product or series representations (such as the for cosine), or computational approximations via transcendental methods like or iterative algorithms for non-constructible angles.

General Theory of Non-Constructible Angles

The arises in the solution of irreducible cubic equations with three distinct real roots, where Cardano's formula expresses the roots using cube roots of complex numbers, preventing a representation solely in terms of real radicals. In , this phenomenon occurs for certain angles whose cosine values satisfy such cubics, as derived from multiple-angle formulas; for instance, tripling the 20° angle yields the known value cos(60°) = 1/2, leading to the equation $4x^3 - 3x - \frac{1}{2} = 0, or equivalently $8x^3 - 6x - 1 = 0 upon clearing the fraction. The real root of this cubic is cos(20°), but its expression via real radicals is impossible due to the irreducibility and the , requiring complex intermediates despite all roots being real. More broadly, non-constructible angles are those for which the minimal of cos(θ) or sin(θ) (for θ a rational multiple of π) has over that is not a power of 2, as established by Wantzel's theorem on field extensions achievable via straightedge and compass constructions. Examples include angles such as 1°, 7°, 11°, and 13°, for which the of Q(cos(θ°))/Q is 48=2^4×3 (not a power of 2), as they correspond to primitive cosines in the non-constructible 360-gon . For such angles, the trigonometric values are algebraic numbers but lie in extensions of 3 or higher, often requiring solutions to cubics or quintics that fall under the or analogous irreducibilities. These angles involve prime factors in the relevant 's order other than 2 and the known Fermat primes (3, 5, 17, 257, 65537), resulting in extension degrees divisible by odd primes greater than these. Since real-radical expressions are unavailable, alternative representations provide exact or high-precision forms without nested radicals. Infinite series, such as the Taylor expansions sin(θ) = ∑{k=0}^∞ (-1)^k θ^{2k+1} / (2k+1)! and cos(θ) = ∑{k=0}^∞ (-1)^k θ^{2k} / (2k)!, yield exact values as limits, with partial sums offering approximations of arbitrary accuracy for any θ. Numerical methods, including like Newton-Raphson applied to the minimal , compute values to or beyond. In some cases involving integrals or inverse functions, elliptic integrals offer closed-form expressions that generalize trigonometric forms, though they are transcendental and not elementary. In modern computational contexts, systems (CAS) such as Mathematica or represent these values symbolically—for example, as objects denoting —or evaluate them numerically to thousands of decimal places, facilitating applications in and where high suffices. However, such systems confirm that closed-form exactness in terms of elementary functions or real radicals remains limited to constructible angles, underscoring the theoretical boundaries imposed by .