Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Fulmar

Fulmars are a genus (Fulmarus) of tube-nosed seabirds in the family Procellariidae, consisting of two extant species: the Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) and the Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides).^[1]^[2] These robust, medium-sized birds, resembling gulls but with stiffer wings and tubular nostrils on their stout bills, are adapted to life over cold ocean waters, where they glide effortlessly and scavenge or forage for fish, squid, crustaceans, and plankton using a keen sense of smell.^[3]^[1] The Northern Fulmar breeds in large colonies on steep coastal cliffs across the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Arctic regions, from Alaska and Canada to Iceland, the British Isles, and Scandinavia, with populations that have expanded dramatically since the 18th century due to access to human food waste like fishing discards and whale carcasses.^[3]^[4] Monogamous and long-lived—often exceeding 30 years, with some reaching 50 or more—these birds defer breeding until 8–10 years old, laying a single egg per year in cliff crevices and fiercely defending nests by regurgitating foul-smelling stomach oil.^[5]^[1] They exhibit plumage polymorphism, ranging from pale gray-and-white to dark gray morphs, and forage over deep waters up to 600 miles from colonies during the breeding season.^[3]^[1] In contrast, the Southern Fulmar inhabits the Southern Ocean around Antarctica and subantarctic islands, breeding on rocky slopes and cliffs in massive colonies, such as those on the South Sandwich and South Orkney Islands, with a global population estimated at around 4 million individuals.^[2]^[6] Paler overall with silvery-gray upperparts, white underparts, and a distinctive white wing patch, it is slightly smaller-billed than its northern counterpart and migrates northward during the non-breeding season, reaching waters off South America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.^[2]^[6] Like the Northern Fulmar, it forms a superspecies pair and shares ecological traits, including surface foraging and attendance at fishing vessels, though its population remains stable despite emerging threats from climate change, which may delay breeding and reduce reproductive success.^[2]^[6] Both species are classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, serving as important indicators of marine health due to their tendency to ingest plastics.^[4]^[6]

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Etymology and Classification

The name "fulmar" originates from the Old Norse term fúlmár, translating to "foul gull" or "foul-mew," a reference to the bird's defensive behavior of regurgitating a foul-smelling stomach oil from its proventriculus to deter predators.^[7]^[8] The genus Fulmarus was established in 1826 by the English naturalist James Stephens in his work General Zoology, or Systematic Natural History, encompassing tube-nosed seabirds classified within the family Procellariidae.^[9] This placement is defined by key morphological adaptations, including the presence of naricorns—elongated, tubular nostrils that house supraorbital salt glands enabling efficient excretion of excess salt from marine diets and enhance olfaction for locating prey over vast ocean expanses.^[10] Members of Procellariidae, including fulmars, exhibit a characteristic split in the upper bill (culmen) that supports their filter-feeding and prey-capture mechanisms, alongside the production of stomach oil derived from partially digested marine prey.^[11] This oil serves dual purposes: providing a lightweight, energy-dense resource to sustain adults during extended flights across oceans and as a regurgitated nutrient for provisioning chicks in remote colonies.^[12] Additionally, these birds possess a highly developed sense of smell, facilitated by enlarged olfactory bulbs and the naricorn structure, allowing detection of volatile compounds from prey such as krill and fish schools.^[13] Phylogenetically, Fulmarus is closely allied with other petrels and shearwaters within Procellariidae, forming a monophyletic clade distinct from the albatross family Diomedeidae; genetic analyses, including mitogenomic sequencing, confirm an ancient divergence between these groups estimated at approximately 60 million years ago, reflecting adaptations to different foraging ecologies.^[14]

Extant Species

The genus Fulmarus comprises two extant species of seabirds in the family Procellariidae, both adapted to marine environments in polar regions, and considered to form a superspecies. The Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) is a medium-sized petrel measuring 45-50 cm in length, with a wingspan of 102-112 cm and a mass of 450-1,000 g.^[1] It is polymorphic, occurring in light morphs with predominantly white plumage on the head and underparts contrasted against gray upperparts, and dark morphs that are overall gray; intermediate forms also exist across its range.^[1] This species is well-suited to cold northern waters, where its robust build supports scavenging and surface feeding behaviors.^[3] In contrast, the Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides) is monomorphic, featuring pale gray upperparts, white underparts, and darker wing tips, with a distinctive pale pink bill tipped in black.^[2] It measures 45-50 cm in length, has a wingspan of 110-120 cm, and weighs 720-1,180 g on average.^[2] Specialized for navigation over Antarctic pack ice, it possesses morphological traits that enhance efficiency in windy, icy conditions.^[15] Key distinctions between the species include bill structure and wing proportions: the Northern Fulmar has a broader, more robust bill adapted for handling carrion and tougher prey, while the Southern Fulmar exhibits a longer, thinner bill and proportionally longer wings that facilitate sustained soaring over expansive ice fields.^[2] Both species are monogamous, forming long-term pair bonds; the Northern Fulmar can achieve lifespans exceeding 50 years, with some individuals reaching up to 60 years in the wild, while the Southern Fulmar reaches up to 45 years.^[5]^[16] The polymorphism observed in the Northern Fulmar is discussed in greater detail in the Plumage Variations section.

Fossil Record and Evolution

The fossil record of the genus Fulmarus is limited but provides key insights into its Miocene origins within the Procellariidae family. Two extinct species have been described from middle to late Miocene deposits in California, dating to approximately 15–11 million years ago. Fulmarus miocaenus (Howard, 1984), based on a complete humerus from the Sharktooth Hill Bonebed in Kern County, was smaller than extant Fulmarus species, with a humerus length of 78.3 mm, and exhibited a more developed bicipital area and distally placed ectepicondylar prominence compared to modern forms.^[17] Similarly, Fulmarus hammeri (Howard, 1968), known from the proximal end of a carpometacarpus and a distal humerus fragment from Laguna Hills in Orange County, was larger than living fulmars but differed in subtle morphological features of the wing elements.^[18]^[19] These specimens represent the earliest definitive records of the genus and indicate that fulmars had achieved a body size and skeletal proportions similar to those of today by the middle Miocene.^[19] The genus Fulmarus likely evolved from early procellariids during the late Oligocene to early Miocene, around 25–20 million years ago, as part of the broader radiation of the Procellariidae family.^[20] This period coincided with the development of key adaptations for marine life, including the tubular nostrils characteristic of procellariiforms, which enhance olfaction for detecting prey over vast open-ocean distances.^[21] The fulmarine petrels, including Fulmarus, diverged from lineages leading to shearwaters (e.g., Puffinus) around 20–15 million years ago, based on molecular phylogenies calibrated with fossil data.^[20] Another critical adaptation, the production of stomach oil from digested prey, originated in Eocene ancestors of the Procellariiformes (approximately 40–50 million years ago) and enabled extended foraging trips by providing a high-energy food source for chicks during parental absences at sea.^[22] Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies support a radiation of procellariid lineages, including fulmars, during Miocene cooling events that expanded polar and subpolar habitats suitable for cold-water foraging.^[23] For instance, divergence estimates within Fulmarus place the split between northern and southern forms at 2–3 million years ago, aligning with intensified Pleistocene glaciations, though the core genus morphology remained stable post-Miocene.^[24] No Quaternary fossils of Fulmarus have been reported, suggesting a conserved evolutionary trajectory without major speciation events in the last 2.6 million years.^[18]

Description

Physical Characteristics

Fulmars are medium-sized seabirds with a stout build that supports their pelagic lifestyle. The Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) measures 39–53 cm in length, with a wingspan of 100–112 cm, and weighs 450–1000 g.^[25]^[26] The Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides) is similar in length at 45–50 cm but has a larger wingspan of 114–120 cm and weighs 720–1180 g.^[2] Their compact, robust frame includes a short tail that aids in maintaining stability during windy conditions at sea.^[26] This morphology, combined with a relatively short neck and large head, enables efficient energy use while foraging over vast ocean expanses.^[27] A defining feature of fulmars, as members of the Procellariiformes order, is their distinctive tube-nosed bill equipped with paired naricorns—elongated, double-barreled nasal passages running along the top of the upper mandible.^[28] These structures connect to supraorbital salt glands that allow fulmars to drink seawater, excreting excess salt as a concentrated solution through the nostrils, which can amount to significant daily volumes relative to body weight to maintain osmotic balance.^[29] The naricorns also enhance olfactory capabilities, funneling scent molecules to olfactory receptors and enabling prey detection via smell from distances exceeding 5 km in some procellariiforms.^[30] Fulmars possess long, narrow wings with a high aspect ratio, typically around 10-12, optimized for dynamic soaring where they exploit wind gradients to glide efficiently over long distances with minimal energy expenditure.^[31] Their legs are short and relatively weak, ill-suited for terrestrial locomotion but well-adapted for swimming, with webbed feet that provide propulsion when pursuing prey underwater or pattering across the surface for takeoff.^[26] The Southern Fulmar has a slightly smaller bill than the Northern Fulmar.^[2] Internally, fulmars exhibit notable adaptations, including enlarged olfactory bulbs that represent one of the largest relative sizes among birds, with a diameter ratio to the cerebral hemisphere of approximately 0.27 (27%) in the Northern Fulmar.^[32] Additionally, a specialized proventriculus in the stomach produces and stores oil derived from dietary lipids, which sustains adults and chicks during extended fasting periods of over 100 days associated with breeding and incubation.^[33]

Plumage Variations

Fulmars exhibit notable plumage variations across species, particularly in the Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), which displays polymorphism that influences its appearance and ecological adaptations. The light morph, more common in Atlantic populations, features a white head and neck contrasting with a grey mantle and wings, providing a distinctive silhouette during flight. In contrast, the dark morph, more common in Pacific populations, presents a uniformly slate-grey plumage overall, with intermediate morphs occurring rarely and blending elements of both extremes. These variations are genetically determined and stable within individuals, though environmental factors may subtly influence expression. The Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides), however, lacks such polymorphism, displaying a uniform plumage adapted to its Antarctic environment. Its body is pale grey with a white face and underparts, accented by black primaries on the wings, creating a subtle camouflage against snowy backdrops without the need for morphic diversity. This monomorphic form ensures consistency across populations, emphasizing functionality over variability. Molting cycles in fulmars are synchronized with breeding and migration, involving a complete annual feather replacement post-breeding season that typically spans 2-3 months. During this period, birds undergo a gradual molt from head to tail, maintaining flight capability through sequential feather loss. Juveniles closely resemble adults by their first year, though they often appear with worn feathers during initial migrations, which are gradually replaced. Oil preening, facilitated by the uropygial gland, plays a crucial role in maintaining plumage waterproofing throughout these cycles, preventing matting and enhancing insulation. These plumage traits carry adaptive significance, with light morphs in the Northern Fulmar offering enhanced visibility in open oceanic waters for predator avoidance and foraging signaling, while dark morphs provide better concealment on rocky breeding cliffs. Such variations underscore the evolutionary pressures shaping fulmar diversification, though size correlations with morphs are addressed in broader physical descriptions.

Distribution and Habitat

Northern Fulmar

The Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) has a circumpolar breeding distribution in the northern hemisphere, encompassing the North Atlantic Ocean with key colonies in Iceland, Scotland, Newfoundland, and Labrador, as well as the North Pacific Ocean including Alaska, the Bering Sea, and the Kuril Islands, and extending to Arctic islands such as Svalbard and the Canadian Arctic archipelago.^[4]^[34]^[35] The species forms dense aggregations at remote coastal sites, with a global breeding population estimated at approximately 7 million pairs (2016).^[4] Outside the breeding season, Northern Fulmars adopt a pelagic lifestyle, ranging widely over northern Atlantic and Pacific waters, often following ocean currents and occasionally straying into subtropical regions.^[34]^[26] Vagrant individuals have been documented rarely in the southern hemisphere, with confirmed records south of New Zealand and off South America.^[36]^[37] Northern Fulmars select nesting habitats on exposed cliff ledges and steep slopes, typically at elevations up to 500 meters, favoring sites with minimal vegetation and protection from ground predators.^[38]^[26] For foraging, they target marine environments over the continental shelf and slope, where water depths range from 200 to 2000 meters, concentrating in areas of nutrient-rich upwellings that enhance prey availability.^[39]^[40] These birds show a strong preference for windy coastal microhabitats that promote dynamic flight and access to productive feeding zones, such as shelf breaks with cold-water upwellings supporting zooplankton, fish, and squid.^[41]^[42] Their distribution has expanded inland and to new coastal areas in recent centuries, facilitated by the exploitation of human-generated waste like fishery discards, which supplements natural food sources. Recent studies indicate potential shifts in breeding distribution due to warming oceans (as of 2023).^[43]^[44]^[1]

Southern Fulmar

The Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides) breeds along the Antarctic Peninsula, South Georgia, and various sub-Antarctic islands including the Crozet Islands and Kerguelen Islands, forming large colonies on ice-free cliffs and steep rocky slopes.^[6]^[45] The global breeding population is estimated at approximately 2 million pairs (corresponding to around 4 million individuals as of 2016), with significant concentrations in the Scotia Sea region and South Atlantic Ocean islands, where up to 72% of pairs nest.^[6]^[46] During the non-breeding season, the species exhibits a circumpolar distribution across the Southern Ocean, closely following pack ice edges and marginal ice zones rich in prey aggregations.^[6]^[45] Rare vagrants occasionally appear further north, reaching as far as southern Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, central Chile, and southern Brazil.^[6] This fulmar prefers nesting habitats on steep rocky slopes and ice cliffs that provide shelter from harsh weather, often in close association with penguin colonies where it may scavenge food scraps.^[45] It forages primarily in marginal ice zones of the Southern Ocean, exploiting areas with high biological productivity near krill swarms.^[47] The species tolerates extreme cold down to -40°C and thrives in environments influenced by katabatic winds, which aid its dynamic gliding flight over icy terrains. Recent observations suggest potential habitat alterations from reduced sea ice due to climate change (as of 2023). Its uniform plumage provides effective camouflage against ice, enhancing survival in these polar habitats.^[45]^[6]

Behavior and Ecology

Breeding Biology

Fulmars are long-lived seabirds that form monogamous pairs for life, with high site fidelity as breeding pairs typically return to the same cliff ledge annually. This pair bond is maintained through mutual preening and vocal displays upon reunion at the colony, contributing to reproductive stability over decades, as pairs may breed together for 40 or more years. Breeding initiation varies by species and hemisphere: northern fulmars begin colony arrival in late winter (February–March), with egg-laying peaking in May–June at lower latitudes and later in the Arctic; southern fulmars start in October–November, aligning with the Antarctic summer.^[5]^[38] Nesting occurs in colonies on steep cliff ledges or rocky slopes, where pairs scrape shallow depressions in bare rock or scant vegetation, often 7–20 cm across and minimally lined with pebbles or grass. Colony sizes range from small groups of a few pairs to massive aggregations exceeding hundreds of thousands of pairs at major sites, such as those in Alaska for the Northern Fulmar and the South Sandwich Islands for the Southern Fulmar; this coloniality provides safety in numbers but also intensifies competition for prime ledges.^[48]^[2] Fulmars aggressively defend their nests against intruders, including conspecifics and predators, by regurgitating foul-smelling stomach oil—composed of lipids from their diet—that can be projected up to 2 meters with surprising accuracy.^[5]^[49]^[50] Each pair lays a single large white egg, weighing about 10–15% of the female's body mass, with incubation shared by both parents in shifts lasting 2–16 days, totaling 47–55 days until hatching. The chick, covered in gray down, remains in the nest under guard for the first 1–2 weeks while parents alternate foraging trips, often exceeding 600 km round-trip to provision it with regurgitated food, including energy-rich stomach oil that aids waterproofing and nutrition. Fledging occurs at 50–60 days post-hatching, with the chick departing independently to sea; parental care ends abruptly thereafter, though some post-fledging feeding may occur at sea.^[38]^[5]^[50] Breeding success varies annually with food availability and weather, reaching 70–90% in favorable years where most eggs hatch and chicks fledge successfully, though averages can drop to 40–50% in poor conditions due to starvation or predation. Fulmars exhibit delayed maturity, with most individuals not breeding until 8–10 years old, a trait that buffers populations against short-term environmental fluctuations but leads to lagged responses in overall numbers.^[49]^[3]

Feeding Habits

Fulmars are opportunistic feeders with diets dominated by marine invertebrates and fish, varying by species and region. In the northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), fish typically comprise 47–93% of the diet by wet mass, squid around 5–8%, and crustaceans such as decapods, amphipods, and copepods 3–13%, with smaller contributions from plankton like pteropods (up to 16%) and carrion.^[51] Northern fulmars exhibit greater opportunism, incorporating carrion and offal where available, though natural prey forms the core. In contrast, the southern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides) focuses more on Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), which can account for 36% by mass alongside 63% fish like Pleuragramma antarcticum in Prydz Bay, with squid and other crustaceans minimal at 1–5%.^[52] Dietary composition shifts seasonally; for instance, crustacean intake increases toward late chick-rearing in some northern populations.^[51] Fulmars employ surface-based foraging techniques, including dipping (head submersion while hovering or walking on water), surface-seizing (snatching prey from the surface in flight), and pursuit plunging or shallow diving to depths of up to 5 m to chase schools of fish or squid.^[53] They travel substantial distances from breeding colonies, with daily foraging ranges of 100–500 km during incubation and chick-rearing, though trips can extend to 1,000 km or more in some cases.^[54] A highly developed sense of smell aids in detecting prey patches from afar.^[53] Kleptoparasitism, where fulmars steal food from other seabirds, occurs rarely but has been observed in mixed foraging flocks. Nutritional adaptations include the production of stomach oil, a lipid-rich substance derived from partially digested prey that provides high-energy fuel for long foraging bouts and chick provisioning, enabling efficient processing of energy-dense meals.^[55] During breeding, pairs alternate incubation duties, with one partner fasting on land for up to two weeks while the other forages pelagically; post-fledging, fulmars shift to extended oceanic foraging.^[53] This strategy supports their endurance flights and variable prey availability.^[54]

Flight, Vocalizations, and Sociality

Fulmars exhibit a distinctive flight style characterized by stiff-winged gliding interspersed with shallow flaps, enabling efficient travel over vast oceanic distances. This locomotion relies on dynamic soaring, where birds exploit wind shear—gradients in wind speed with altitude—to gain energy with minimal flapping, allowing sustained travel at airspeeds averaging around 13 m/s (approximately 47 km/h).^[56]^[57] Such techniques permit fulmars to cover hundreds of kilometers daily with low energy expenditure, as evidenced by satellite-tracked individuals traveling up to 369 km in a single day during non-breeding periods.^[58] Their broad wings, adapted for this gliding, facilitate effortless wheeling in strong winds, often close to the water surface.^[3] Vocalizations in fulmars are primarily associated with social interactions rather than long-distance communication at sea, where they remain mostly silent except for occasional begging calls from young. During displays, they produce nasal cackling calls, such as the braying "aaark-aark" notes delivered at a rate of about three per second, often interspersed with rasping inspirations.^[59] In aggressive contexts, low growls and grunts accompany threats, signaling intent without physical contact.^[60] These sounds, guttural and throaty, underscore territorial boundaries and pair reinforcement.^[59] Socially, fulmars are typically solitary or form small flocks while at sea away from food concentrations, contrasting with their dense breeding aggregations. In colonies, aggression manifests through aerial dives toward intruders and regurgitation of foul-smelling stomach oil, which can be projected several meters to deter rivals by matting feathers and impairing flight.^[5] Mate displays involve mutual head tossing and bill fencing, where partners wag necks back and forth while touching bills, reinforcing long-term pair bonds annually upon returning to nest sites.^[5] These birds exhibit high philopatry, with strong fidelity to natal colonies—particularly in the North Pacific—contributing to low dispersal rates.^[61] Fulmars boast exceptional longevity, with adults averaging over 30 years and some individuals breeding for more than 40 years, supporting stable pair bonds that enhance reproductive success.^[1]

Conservation Status

Population Trends

The Northern Fulmar underwent a dramatic population expansion during the 20th century, with numbers increasing approximately 10-fold across the Northeast Atlantic due to enhanced food availability from commercial fishing discards. In the British Isles, this growth was especially pronounced, as breeding pairs rose from roughly 10,000 in the early 1900s to about 1.5 million by 2000, allowing the species to colonize new coastal sites previously unsuitable for large-scale breeding.^[62]^[63] Recent trends indicate regional variation, with post-2020 declines of around 20% observed in select Scottish and North Atlantic colonies amid broader European reductions exceeding 40% since the mid-1980s. In Alaska, however, populations remain stable or increasing at major sites such as St. Paul and St. George Islands, comprising about 80% of North American breeders. Southern Fulmar populations have held steady at approximately 4 million individuals worldwide, though breeding success fluctuates with Antarctic sea ice extent and prey availability.^[64]^[65]^[6] Long-term monitoring, exemplified by a 50-year study in Scotland, demonstrates that fulmar populations respond to ocean climate variations with delays of up to 5 years, as indices like the North Atlantic Oscillation influence cohort recruitment and overall dynamics through effects on summer temperatures and breeding performance. The global fulmar population is estimated at 15-20 million individuals, reflecting the combined totals of both Northern and Southern species. Fulmars' strong breeding site fidelity, often exceeding 90% in adults, can prolong recovery from such perturbations.^[66]^[4] Avian influenza outbreaks since 2022 have caused mortality in some individuals, with cases reported in areas like the Netherlands in 2024.^[67]^[68]

Threats and Protection Measures

Northern fulmars face significant threats from plastic ingestion, with recent Canadian data indicating that 52% of sampled individuals from Sable Island between 2010 and 2023 contained 0.1 grams or more of plastic in their stomachs. However, recent assessments indicate a significant decline in plastic pollution levels in northern fulmars over the past 20 years (as of 2024).^[69]^[70] This pollution arises largely from surface-floating debris mistaken for food during foraging. Bycatch in longline fisheries represents another major risk, with estimates suggesting annual mortality of around 3,920 northern fulmars in North Pacific groundfish fisheries alone between 2007 and 2014, potentially contributing 2-5% to adult mortality in vulnerable populations.^[71] Climate change exacerbates these pressures by altering breeding phenology and prey availability; Antarctic seabirds, including southern fulmars, now lay eggs an average of 2.1 days later than in the early 1950s, linked to shifting sea ice and ocean temperatures.^[72] For southern fulmars, declines in Antarctic krill abundance due to warming waters have reduced breeding success, with performance notably lower in years of low sea ice concentration.^[73] Additional risks include oil spills, which can cause mass mortality events among fulmars through direct fouling and habitat contamination.^[74] Avian influenza poses a disease threat, with fulmars susceptible to outbreaks that amplify mortality in dense colonies.^[74] Sustainable fishing regulations have diminished the availability of fish offal—a key food source for northern fulmars—leading to dietary shifts and increased vulnerability to other stressors. Pollutants accumulated during foraging further compound cumulative physiological stress on both species. Conservation efforts classify both northern and southern fulmars as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, with stable global populations as of 2025 assessments.^[4]^[6] The Antarctic Treaty System establishes marine protected areas that safeguard southern fulmar breeding habitats from exploitation and disturbance.^[75] BirdLife International coordinates ongoing population monitoring and threat assessments for both species across their ranges. To mitigate bycatch, the European Union has implemented gear modifications and best practices in longline fisheries, while the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) enforces measures like weighted lines and night-setting restrictions. Research on climate adaptation highlights a 5-year lag in reproductive responses to ocean climate variability in fulmars, informing predictive models for population resilience. Arctic reserves provide safeguards for northern fulmar breeding sites, restricting human access and invasive species introduction to protect cliff-nesting colonies.

Human Interactions

Historical Exploitation

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the inhabitants of St. Kilda in the Outer Hebrides relied heavily on the northern fulmar for sustenance and resources, harvesting approximately 100-130 birds per person annually during the seasonal fowling period in late summer.^[76] Young fulmars were captured by hand or with fowling hooks on cliff ledges before they could fly, yielding around 12,000 birds in total each year for the island's small population.^[76] The meat served as a dietary staple, often dried in special huts for winter storage, while fresh eggs provided seasonal nutrition; feathers were stuffed into pillows and bedding, and the birds' stomach oil—extracted and stored in gannet gut bags—was burned in lamps for lighting and fuel.^[76] By the mid-19th century, annual harvests reached about 9,600 birds, producing up to 566 gallons of oil in 1875 alone, which was traded with mainland Scotland for goods like cloth and tools.^[77] Beyond St. Kilda, indigenous Arctic peoples, including Inuit communities, traditionally exploited northern fulmars for food and eggs, consuming the birds' meat, using their oil for fuel, and gathering eggs as a vital protein source during breeding seasons.^[78] In Europe, harvesting of fulmars in Iceland and the Faroe Islands faced temporary bans in the late 1930s due to psittacosis outbreaks, a disease that could transmit to humans, though regulated hunting resumed thereafter.^[79] The evacuation of St. Kilda's remaining 36 residents in 1930 ended intensive local harvesting there, allowing fulmar populations to rebound initially in the absence of human pressure.^[80] The northern fulmar held cultural significance in Norse traditions, where its name derives from Old Norse terms meaning "foul gull" or "foul-mew," referring to the bird's defensive ejection of foul-smelling stomach oil.^[8] In 19th-century Scotland, fulmar oil from St. Kilda became a minor trade commodity, bartered or sold for its preservative and lighting properties, though demand waned with the rise of cheaper alternatives like whale oil.^[81] While such exploitation caused localized population declines around key breeding sites like St. Kilda, the species proved resilient overall, with broader expansions in the North Atlantic facilitated by human fishing discards providing abundant offal waste as a food source.

Modern Significance and Conflicts

In contemporary environmental monitoring, the Northern Fulmar serves as a crucial bioindicator for marine litter in the North Atlantic and North Sea, with programs like the OSPAR Convention using stomach plastic content from beached birds to monitor pollution levels; as of assessments in the early 2020s, over 50% of North Sea fulmars exceed ecological quality thresholds of 0.1 g plastic per bird.^[82]^[83] The Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides) plays a key role as a bioindicator for marine pollution in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters, with studies examining plastic ingestion in its stomach contents to assess debris levels in remote polar ecosystems.^[84] As a top predator in the Southern Ocean food web, it also bioaccumulates persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), with concentrations fluctuating during the breeding season and reflecting dietary exposure from prey like krill and fish.^[85] These attributes make the species valuable for tracking long-term contaminant trends in regions where direct sampling is challenging due to ice cover and isolation.^[86] Human activities pose several conflicts for fulmar populations. For the Southern Fulmar, scavenging behavior draws birds to fishing vessels, where they ingest fishery discards laced with plastics, exacerbating pollution loads.^[87] Tourism in Antarctic breeding colonies, such as those at Brown Bluff, can cause disturbance by trampling nests and triggering adult flush responses, potentially reducing chick survival rates amid growing visitor numbers exceeding 100,000 annually.^[88] Additionally, research efforts involving satellite tagging to study migration patterns—revealing wide-ranging movements from Antarctic breeding sites to subtropical foraging grounds—may impose short-term stress, though benefits include informing conservation strategies.^[89] Northern Fulmars similarly face risks from plastic ingestion and interactions with fisheries, contributing to their use in pollution monitoring. On the positive side, fulmars contribute to ecosystem services by scavenging fishery waste, helping mitigate organic debris accumulation in ocean environments and indirectly supporting sustainable fishing practices.^[42] Antarctic ecotourism, featuring Southern Fulmar colonies as highlights for birdwatchers, generates substantial revenue—estimated at over US$800 million annually across the industry as of 2024—while promoting public awareness of polar conservation.^[90] Both species are integral to seabird population models, such as Leslie matrix projections that incorporate climate variability to predict breeding success and demographic trends over decades.^[91] Culturally, fulmars appear in wildlife documentaries, showcasing their graceful flight and colonial behaviors to educate global audiences on ocean biodiversity. Recent 2025 monitoring amid high-pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) outbreaks in Antarctic seabirds, including Southern Fulmars, underscores their resilience, with recorded lifespans exceeding 40 years in the wild enabling population recovery despite disease pressures.^[92]^[93]

References

[1]
https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/norful/cur/introduction
[2]
Southern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides - Birds of the World
It breeds in large colonies on cliffs and steep, rocky slopes on Antarctic coasts and subantarctic islands. Non-breeders, mostly young birds, wander north to ...
[3]
Northern Fulmar Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
These stout-bodied seabirds are abundant in the bitterly cold northern Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans, where they feed over deep waters.
[4]
Northern Fulmar Fulmarus Glacialis Species Factsheet
Southern populations are more dispersive, but do not usually reach zones of warm water. Young birds may undertake transoceanic crossings and general wander ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[5]
Northern Fulmar Life History - All About Birds
Northern Fulmars are monogamous and mate for life—and they can live about 60 years. They are famously faithful to their nest sites as well: one study found that ...
[6]
Southern Fulmar Fulmarus Glacialoides Species Factsheet
This species breeds along the coast of Antarctica and outlying islands, including the South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur), South Orkney Islands, ...
[7]
fulmar - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
From Old Norse fúll (“foul”) + már (“gull”) (cognate to English mew), evidently in reference to the foul-smelling vomit it ejects to deter predators.
[8]
Fulsome Fulmars - Ornithology
Aug 21, 2022 · The name comes from the Old Norse Fúlmár meaning “foul-gull” because of the birds' vomiting a foul-smelling liquid that is produced and stored ...
[9]
Fulmarus - Mindat
Fulmarus ; Scientific Name, Fulmarus Stephens, 1826 ; Name Published In, Stephens, James F. 1826. General Zoology, or Systematic natural history. J. and A. Arch & ...
[10]
Comparative morphology of the compound rhamphotheca of ...
In birds with a marine habitat the nasal glands are modified into salt glands, able to excrete excess sodium chloride.
[11]
Procellariidae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Procellariidae refers to a family of oceanic birds, including shearwaters and smaller petrels, that breed in burrows and typically return to their nest sites ...Missing: naricorn | Show results with:naricorn
[12]
Fatty Acids Composition of Stomach Oil of Scopoli's Shearwater ...
Some Procellariiformes use an alternation of short tips and long trips to feed their chick. During these trips, they can accumulate stomach oil in the ...Missing: Procellariidae | Show results with:Procellariidae
[13]
Mechanisms of Olfactory Foraging by Antarctic Procelliiform Seabirds
Procellariiform seabirds share common adaptations for this lifestyle. Many species have extremely efficient flight styles, and an excellent sense of smell.
[14]
The taxonomy of the Procellariiformes has been proposed ... - J-Stage
Abstract The genetic analysis of 23 protein loci in 15 species of Procellariiformes was made. The genetic distances between the species was calculated and a ...
[15]
https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/animals/flying-birds/southern-fulmar/
[16]
Southern fulmar - Australian Antarctic Program
Jan 3, 2013 · Southern fulmar adults are approximately 46–50cm in length and have a wing span of 1.1 to 1.2m. They have a pink bill which is black at the tip ...Southern Fulmar · Distribution & Abundance · BreedingMissing: morphology weight adaptations
[17]
Southern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides) longevity, ageing, and life ...
These are long-lived birds capable of living over 45 years in the wild, although reproductive senescence has been observed [0919]. Life history traits (averages).Missing: monogamous | Show results with:monogamous
[18]
1984. "Additional avian records from the Miocene of Kern County ...
Abstract.— Additional avian records from the Miocene of Kern County, Cali- fornia with the description of a new species of fulmar (Aves:Procellariidae) by.
[19]
[PDF] Chapter 2 - THE FOSSIL RECORD OF BIRDS - Smithsonian Institution
Fulmarus miocaenus Howard, 1984, based on a complete humérus from the middle ... Additional avian records from the Miocene of Kern County, California, with.
[20]
Systematics - Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis - Birds of the World
Fossils. Record sparse. Fulmarus miocaenus Howard, 1984, on basis of complete humerus from middle Miocene of California, was smaller than living Fulmarus ...
[21]
A New Giant Petrel (Macronectes, Aves: Procellariidae) from ... - MDPI
Jan 30, 2023 · Fulmar species (Fulmarus spp.), the sister taxa of Macronectes, have a fossil record spanning back to the middle Miocene of California, USA (ca.<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
Procellariiform - Flight, Adaptations, Seabirds | Britannica
Ejected through the mouth and nose, it also disposes of excess vitamins and salt in the diet of marine food and seawater.Missing: naricorn | Show results with:naricorn
[23]
Procellariiform - Flight, Adaptations, Fossils - Britannica
Oct 11, 2025 · Procellariiform - Flight, Adaptations, Fossils: The oldest tubinare fossil is a giant albatross from the Eocene Epoch ... Stomach oil · Evolution ...
[24]
Delimiting shades of gray: phylogeography of the Northern Fulmar ...
May 22, 2013 · We employ a multigene phylogenetic analysis to better explore the level of genetic divergence between these populations and to test an old ...
[25]
phylogeography of the Northern Fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis - PMC
We employ a multigene phylogenetic analysis to better explore the level of genetic divergence between these populations and to test an old hypothesis on the ...
[26]
Fulmar | Birds | Species profile - Scottish Wildlife Trust
Once the chick is 10-15 days old, the production of stomach oil becomes well developed. This oil is characteristic of this group of seabirds and is used not ...Behaviour · Status · Facts
[27]
Fulmarus glacialis (northern fulmar) - Animal Diversity Web
Males are slightly larger, on average 835 g whereas females average 700 g (range of masses is 450 to 1000 g). The sexes are similar in overall appearance.Missing: weight | Show results with:weight
[28]
Northern fulmar - Norsk Polarinstitutt
It is a stocky petrel that has a length of 45–53 cm and a weight of 650–1000 g; it has a relatively short, thick neck and large head. Fulmars occur in two main ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[29]
The Fulmars (Procellariidae Family) Information - Earth Life
It excretes a high saline solution from its nose. Two prehistoric species have been described from fossil bones found on the Pacific coast of California: ...Fulmars (family... · Description · Taxonomy<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
The avian salt gland - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · In addition, some bird species have special salt glands located on the birds' skull that excrete fluids containing very high salt concentrations ...
[31]
Sensory ecology on the high seas: the odor world of the ...
Jun 1, 2008 · Procellariiform seabirds wander the world's oceans aided by olfactory abilities rivaling those of any animal on earth.
[32]
Wing loadings, wing shapes, and flight capabilities of procellariiformes
Wing loading increases with body weight. Wing area varies with body weight. Wings become longer and narrower with increasing size, and aspect ratios increase. ...
[33]
[PDF] The Size of the Olfactory Bulb in 108 Species of Birds
Sep 8, 2024 · The Size of the Olfactory Bulb in 108 Species of Birds. B. G. ... PROCELLARIIFORMES. Mean ratio 29. Snow Petrel Pagodroma nivea. 6.7. 18.0.
[34]
Postnatal Development of Northern Fulmar Chicks, Fulmarus glacialis
Slow growth and large lipid stores were thought primarily to be adaptations to allow chicks to survive long intervals between meals, re- sulting from the patchy ...Missing: anatomy | Show results with:anatomy
[35]
Distribution - Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis - Birds of the World
Breeding Range. At least 20 colonies in Russia (Kuril Is., n. Sea of Okhotsk, Commander Is., and Bering Sea coast north to Cape Stoletiya, Chukchi Peninsula ...
[36]
Fulmarus glacialis - NatureServe Explorer
Aug 1, 2025 · Discontinuously circumpolar, breeding in the north Atlantic, north Pacific, and Arctic oceans. In North America breeds in colonies along the ...
[37]
Northern fulmar | New Zealand Birds Online
Dark morph northern fulmars are generally paler than dark shearwaters of a similar size, and have larger heads, broader wings and more stocky bodies. White- ...
[38]
[PDF] FIRST SOUTH AMERICAN RECORD OF THE NORTHERN ...
Feb 9, 2014 · The only Southern Hemisphere record of a Northern Fulmar, as far as we know, is from east of the Snares Islands, New Zealand. The bird was a ...
[39]
Breeding - Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis - Birds of the World
Generally, high-Arctic birds arrive at colonies later, spend less time there before egg-laying, and take a significantly longer pre-laying exodus.
[40]
Habitat - Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis - Birds of the World
Marine, mostly in waters over continental shelf; ranges from pack ice through Arctic photo and subarctic to temperate waters; avoids warmer regions.<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
Northern Fulmar | Audubon Field Guide
Pattern of light birds might suggest a gull, but note the fulmar's stubby bill, very different flight style (quick flaps and stiff-winged glide, with wings held ...
[42]
Northern Fulmar - Eastside Audubon Society
Aug 6, 2024 · Fulmarus glacialis. Length: 18” Wingspan: 42” Weight: 1.5 lb (680 g) ... Northern Fulmars are a circumpolar species in two general populations ...Missing: size | Show results with:size
[43]
Marine Ecology Progress Series 484:259
Fulmar foraging trips during chick rearing are usually within 500 km of the colony (Weimerskirch et al.
[44]
Foraging distribution of breeding northern fulmars is predicted by ...
Nov 25, 2021 · The driv- ers underlying this expansion likely include both the exploitation of fisheries waste (Fisher 1952, Phillips et al. 1999) and changing ...
[45]
(PDF) Increasing and Expanding Populations of Breeding Northern ...
During the past 200 years, the breeding range of the Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) has expanded dramatically in the eastern North Atlantic.
[46]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225643011_Distribution_and_abundance_of_the_Southern_Fulmar_Fulmarus_glacialoides
[47]
(PDF) Distribution and abundance of the Southern Fulmar Fulmarus ...
PDF | We reviewed published and unpublished literature to establish the status of the breeding distribution and abundance of Southern Fulmars Fulmarus.Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[48]
Sea-ice and macrozooplankton distribution as determinants of top ...
Predators in the marginal ice zone (e.g. Antarctic fur seals, snow petrels) and in open water (e.g. southern fulmars, other petrels) communities also consume ...
[49]
[PDF] Adult Survival and Productivity of Northern Fulmars in Alaska
Nov 1, 1987 · Breeding success varied from about 7 to 72%, averaging 41% (Table 3). Hatching success was more variable than fledging success, but both.
[50]
[PDF] Distribution and abundance of the Southern Fulmar Fulmarus ...
Southern Fulmars are also known as Silver-grey/gray Pet- rel, Silver-grey/gray Fulmar and Antarctic Fulmar. In 1949, the species' scientific name Procellaria ...Missing: hybridization | Show results with:hybridization
[51]
(PDF) Diet of the northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis: Reliance on ...
However, a considerable proportion of their diet also consisted of juvenile gadids, sandeels, capelin and pelagic zooplankton, which fulmars catch for ...
[52]
(PDF) The Diet of Antarctic Petrels, Cape Petrels and Southern ...
Aug 6, 2025 · By mass they constituted 78% and 22% of Antarctic petrel diet, 63% and 36% of southern fulmar diet, and 14% and 85% of cape petrel diet ...
[53]
Diet and Foraging - Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis
As in most other petrels, stomach oil is produced as a dietary residue and stored in proventriculus. Unlike species with wider foraging ranges, oil is fed ...Feeding · Diet · Quantitative Analysis<|separator|>
[54]
[PDF] The breeding season foraging trip characteristics, foraging ...
They are not deep diving birds so largely forage at the surface (Garthe and Furness, 2001). Fulmars are also thought to be one of the species that has ...
[55]
Lipids from stomach oil of procellariiform seabirds document ... - ASLO
Stomach oils result from the breakdown of ingested food and usually have been regarded as an adaptation for combining the provision of a concentrated high- ...
[56]
Behavior - Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis - Birds of the World
Changes of mate or site often associated with failure to raise a chick in previous year. Divorce rate 4%/yr in a Scottish colony (n = 54 pair-years); fidelity ...Missing: hybridization | Show results with:hybridization
[57]
Offshore wind developments - collision and displacement in petrels ...
Dec 8, 2022 · The mean air speed of Fulmars measured off Foula, Shetland, using an ornithodolite was 13.0 m/s (Pennycuick, 1987). A male Fulmar GPS -tracked ...<|separator|>
[58]
Satellite tracking of high-arctic northern fulmars | Polar Biology
The highest effective flight (ground) speed recorded was 25.8 kmh−1, and when corrected for non-linear flight path the ground speeds ranged between 27.9 ...
[59]
Sounds and Vocal Behavior - Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis
Close : 126): "In 'slow cackling', braying ' aaark ' note given at rate of usually 3 per second, each interspersed with rasping, breathy inspiration (' aawww ') ...
[60]
Northern Fulmar Sounds, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Adults preparing to eject stomach oil onto an intruder give a squeak, f-chee! At sea, mostly silent, but occasionally gives a short grunting sound.Missing: aark | Show results with:aark
[61]
Movements and Migration - Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis
Dispersal and Site Fidelity. Natal Philopatry. Apparently strong in North Pacific, but weak in boreal ne. Atlantic; i.e., segregation of color morphs between ...
[62]
Unravelling dispersal patterns in an expanding population of a ...
The northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) is an abundant seabird whose Northeast Atlantic population has expanded dramatically over the past 100 years.<|separator|>
[63]
Resilience of the British and Irish seabird community in the twentieth ...
Dec 2, 2008 · This seabird community has been affected by 4 main factors: (1) fisheries, (2) exploitation for food, (3) spe- cies invasions and habitat ...
[64]
Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) - State of The Coast
Fulmar breed mostly on cliff ledges, but have been known to nest on slopes, at the base of stone walls, and in sand dunes. Their diet mostly consists of ...
[65]
[PDF] Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis
From 2010-2018, an average of 3,600 birds were caught in nets annually every year (Krieger et al. 2019). In recent decades, scientists have documented several ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[66]
Lagged effects of ocean climate change on fulmar population ...
Here we show by analysis of data from a 50-year study of the fulmar that two different indices of ocean climate variation may have lagged effects on population ...Missing: conditions | Show results with:conditions
[67]
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Northern Fulmars (Fulmarus ...
Jul 11, 2025 · Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a threat to wild bird health, and outbreaks in seabird breeding colonies have caused numerous mass ...Missing: fledging | Show results with:fledging
[68]
Declines in UK breeding populations of seabird species of ...
Oct 29, 2024 · The outbreak of high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) in 2021–2022 is the likely primary driver of these declines. Aims: To produce UK and ...
[69]
[PDF] Plastic particles in the northern fulmar | Canada.ca
1 This plastic waste can be unintentionally ingested by seabirds, such as the northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), which feed at the ocean's surface.Missing: bycatch | Show results with:bycatch
[70]
[PDF] Seasonal variation of Pacific Northern Fulmar bycatch - Oikonos
Oct 21, 2020 · Bycatch estimates averaged 3,920 (range = 811–7,758) fulmars killed annually between 2007 and 2014 in North Pacific ground- fish fisheries, ...
[71]
Antarctic birds breed later in response to climate change - PNAS
Overall, species now arrive at their colonies 9.1 days later, on average, and lay eggs an average of 2.1 days later than in the early 1950s.
[72]
Effects of climate variability on the temporal population dynamics of ...
Jul 3, 2003 · In addition, the number of breeding pairs of southern fulmars seems to be more variable after this period. This may reinforce the hypothesis ...
[73]
[PDF] Conservation and Management Advice | Nature Scot
These species are also susceptible to large scale mortality in major oil spills (Mendel et al. ... Fulmars are also susceptible to diseases such as avian flu.
[74]
Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora
The ATCM has also adopted specific measures to manage human disturbance of Antarctic fauna and flora, including Recommendation XVIII-1: Guidance for Visitors to ...Missing: fulmar bycatch reduction EU NAFO
[75]
Seabird of the month: Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)
May 12, 2022 · Among those, they have nostrils on top of their upper bills and a salt gland above their nasal passages that excrete a high saline solution from ...
[76]
Getting the Fulmar, St Kilda - High Life Highland - Am Baile
Fulmar and gannets were eaten fresh in season or cured, and both were harvested before they could fly from the nests. Puffins were also eaten.Missing: historical exploitation northern
[77]
Seabirds - Animals - Birds
Seabird eggs were important to the food systems of the Tlingit and Haida [2]. In spring, the Tlingit gathered seabird eggs from the outer rocks, and ate them ...
[78]
The Other Slaughter in the Faroe Islands: the Mass Bird Killings
Sep 26, 2014 · More efficient tools have exposed seabirds to excessive exploitation. ... St Kilda in the Outer Hebrides and Grimsey off northern Iceland.
[79]
The last families who lived on St Kilda - BBC
Aug 28, 2020 · Thirteen men, 10 women and 13 children were evacuated from the remote island in 1930 because life had become too tough.
[80]
A Virtual Journey to the Scottish Islands of St Kilda ... - Scotiana
Aug 30, 2022 · 1834: 93 (21 houses) Hamish Haswell-Smith writes : “As demand for the island's 'exports' declined (fulmar oil for lamps, feathers, tweed), some ...<|separator|>
[81]
Recommended best practices for plastic and litter ingestion studies ...
May 9, 2019 · We provide a synthesized set of recommendations specific for seabirds and plastic ingestion studies that include best practices in relation to sample ...
[82]
Adélie Penguin and Southern Fulmar - Seabirds - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · In the Adélie penguin, concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dieldrin were significantly higher at the moment of egg laying, ...
[83]
Persistent organic pollutants and mercury in a colony of Antarctic ...
Jul 17, 2022 · We compared samples of different developmental stages collected in 2001, 2003, and 2014 to 2016 to investigate changes in pollutant concentrations over time.
[84]
Southern Fulmar - Stay connected with nature and your friend
The Southern Fulmar predominantly inhabits Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters. It favors regions with cold, open ocean environments, often found around icebergs ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[85]
Visitor Site Guidelines - 13. Brown Bluff - Antarctic Treaty
Suspected Breeders: Southern Fulmar, Southern giant petrel, Wilson's storm-petrel. ... Disturbance of wildlife. Trampling of moss and lichen on moraine ...
[86]
[PDF] Species&#x2010 - CEBC - CNRS
During the non-breeding season, the three fulmarines showed species-specific migration strategies along a wide latitudinal gradient. Snow Petrels largely ...
[87]
The value of Antarctic and Southern Ocean ecosystem services
2020) to iconic top predators that are a focus of tourism. The $820 million per year Antarctic tourism industry and the $370 million fishing industry (Stoeckl ...Missing: Fulmar ecotourism revenue<|separator|>
[88]
[PDF] Modelling population dynamics of seabirds: importance of the effects ...
The number of southern fulmar breeding pairs increased during the study (Fig. 2a), although it fluctuated strongly, especially since the early 1980s. The ...
[89]
[PDF] Update on High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza in Antarctica 2024/25
May 9, 2025 · As of 1 March 2025, there are confirmed cases in sub-Antarctic islands and in the ATA in the northern Peninsula region. In addition to the virus ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[90]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378508056_The_value_of_Antarctic_and_Southern_Ocean_ecosystem_services