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Gallium phosphide

Gallium phosphide (GaP) is a III-V compound semiconductor with the chemical formula GaP, characterized by a zinc blende crystal structure and a lattice constant of 5.45 Å.^[1] It exhibits an indirect bandgap of approximately 2.26 eV at room temperature, rendering it transparent in the visible to infrared spectral range from about 0.54 μm to 11 μm, with a refractive index averaging 3.1 at 1.4 μm and higher values up to 3.6 at 500 nm.^[2] High-purity GaP appears as a transparent, orange, glassy material with a density of 4.14 g/cm³, a melting point of around 1470 °C under phosphorus pressure, and notable mechanical properties including a Knoop hardness of 850 kg/mm² and flexural strength of 100 MPa.^[1] Synthesized through methods such as liquid encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) growth from gallium-rich melts or vapor-phase reactions involving precursors like trimethylgallium and phosphine, GaP is typically doped n-type with sulfur or tellurium to achieve carrier concentrations of 10¹⁷–10¹⁸ cm⁻³.^[1] As a wide-bandgap material, GaP has been pivotal in optoelectronics since the 1960s, particularly for low-cost light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emitting red, orange, and green light, including as a substrate for AlGaInP-based devices producing orange-yellow-green emission.^[3] Despite its indirect bandgap, GaP exhibits visible luminescence through mechanisms such as donor-acceptor recombination, with green LED emission around 555 nm, while its high thermal stability and chemical resistance support applications in photocatalysis, solar cells, and biological imaging via thin films or nanoparticles.^[2] In advanced optics, GaP's low extinction coefficient (near zero beyond 560 nm) and high dispersion facilitate its use in metasurfaces for visible light manipulation, such as transmission gratings achieving up to 50% diffraction efficiency and metalenses with focal lengths around 2.4 mm at 450 nm.^[4] Additionally, its transparency and durability make it suitable for visible and mid- to long-wave infrared (MWIR/LWIR) components, including lenses for CO₂ lasers and thermal imagers, often paired with materials like ZnSe in achromatic systems.^[2]

Properties

Physical properties

Gallium phosphide has the chemical formula GaP and a molar mass of 100.697 g/mol.^[5] It appears as a pale orange to yellow crystalline solid and is odorless.^[6]^[7]^[8] The density of gallium phosphide is 4.138 g/cm³ at room temperature.^[7] Its melting point is 1,457 °C, though it may decompose before melting under certain conditions, such as during high-temperature processing.^[9] Gallium phosphide crystallizes in the zincblende structure, which is cubic, with a lattice constant of 5.4505 Å at 300 K.^[10]^[11] This structure contributes to its stability as a wide-bandgap semiconductor material. Key thermal properties include a thermal conductivity of approximately 0.81 W/cm·K and a coefficient of thermal expansion of 4.65 × 10⁻⁶ /K, making it suitable for applications requiring moderate heat dissipation.^[12]^[6] Mechanically, gallium phosphide is a brittle solid with a Mohs hardness of 5. It has a Knoop hardness of 850 kg/mm².^[13] GaP is insoluble in water and most organic solvents but can be etched by hot concentrated acids or bases.^[6]

Electronic and optical properties

Gallium phosphide (GaP) is a III-V compound semiconductor characterized by an indirect bandgap, which influences its efficiency in optoelectronic applications by requiring phonon assistance for momentum conservation in radiative transitions. The indirect bandgap occurs at the X-point in the Brillouin zone with an energy of 2.26 eV at 300 K, while the direct bandgap at the Γ-point is approximately 2.78 eV, making radiative recombination less favorable compared to direct-bandgap materials like GaAs.^[14] In undoped GaP, electron mobility is approximately 100 cm²/V·s, and hole mobility is around 50 cm²/V·s, reflecting the material's moderate carrier transport properties suitable for low-power devices.^[15] The static dielectric constant is 11.1, and the high-frequency dielectric constant is 9.11, contributing to its use in capacitors and waveguides.^[11] The refractive index is about 3.4 at 500 nm, enabling strong light confinement in photonic structures.^[16] The absorption edge lies near 550 nm, corresponding to green light, beyond which GaP exhibits high transparency extending from the visible spectrum into the mid-infrared region (up to ~11 μm), ideal for optical windows and lenses.^[2]^[4] Doping modulates conductivity: n-type doping with sulfur or tellurium introduces donor levels, increasing electron carrier concentrations up to 10¹⁸ cm⁻³ and enhancing n-type conductivity, while p-type doping with zinc creates acceptor levels, boosting hole concentrations and p-type behavior.^[17]^[18] Phonon properties play a key role in GaP's light emission efficiency due to the indirect bandgap; the longitudinal optical (LO) phonon energy is approximately 45 meV, facilitating phonon-assisted recombination processes that can limit quantum yields in undoped material.^[19]

Synthesis and production

Chemical synthesis

Gallium phosphide (GaP) was first synthesized in 1926 by Victor Goldschmidt. Early vapor transport techniques were developed in the mid-20th century to produce higher-purity material for semiconductor applications.^[20] One common laboratory method involves the direct combination of gallium metal and phosphorus vapor. In this process, gallium is heated to its molten state and exposed to phosphorus vapor generated from elemental phosphorus, typically at temperatures between 900 and 1,100 °C under an inert atmosphere such as hydrogen carrier gas to prevent oxidation. The reaction proceeds according to the stoichiometry Ga + (1/4)P₄ → GaP, but requires an excess of phosphorus to maintain equilibrium and avoid decomposition of the GaP product due to phosphorus volatility.^[21]^[20] An alternative route utilizes the reduction of gallium oxide (Ga₂O₃) precursors. Here, Ga₂O₃ is reduced with phosphorus vapor or phosphine (PH₃) at approximately 1,000 °C in a flow system employing a hydrogen stream to facilitate the reaction and remove byproducts like water. This method allows for the conversion of oxide impurities in gallium sources into GaP, yielding polycrystalline material suitable for further processing.^[22]^[20] Recent colloidal methods, such as heating gallium acetylacetonate with phosphorus sources in high-boiling solvents like oleic acid, enable the synthesis of size-tunable GaP quantum dots with photoluminescence quantum yields up to 40% as of 2023, suitable for optoelectronic devices such as color converters in LEDs.^[23]^[24]

Halide vapor-phase approaches

The reaction of gallium chlorides, such as GaCl or GaCl₃, with phosphine (PH₃) is used in halide vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE). The precursors are introduced into a reactor where the gallium chloride vapor reacts with PH₃ at elevated temperatures, typically in the range of 600–1,000 °C, to deposit GaP. This route offers control over stoichiometry through gas flow ratios and is valued for its scalability in producing high-purity material.^[25] High-pressure synthesis employs sealed vessels to counteract phosphorus loss and achieve precise stoichiometric balance. Gallium and phosphorus are loaded into a quartz ampoule within a high-pressure chamber pressurized with inert gas (e.g., argon) to 36–50 bars, heated to 1,000–1,500 °C to drive the direct reaction while minimizing evaporation. This technique ensures complete reaction and is particularly useful for initial polycrystalline formation under controlled conditions.^[26] For polycrystalline GaP, typical yields exceed 90% under optimized conditions, with purity levels controlled by vacuum baking of precursors and inert atmospheres to limit impurities from oxygen (forming oxides) or carbon (from quartz reactors). Silicon and other trace elements remain the primary contaminants, often below 50 ppm when using high-vacuum setups.^[20]^[26]

Crystal growth techniques

Gallium phosphide (GaP) single crystals are essential for semiconductor devices due to their wide bandgap and lattice-matching properties, but growing high-quality crystals is complicated by the material's high melting point and volatility. Several techniques have been developed to produce defect-minimized boules and epitaxial layers, focusing on controlling phosphorus loss and structural imperfections. These methods typically start from polycrystalline GaP synthesized via chemical routes and aim for oriented single crystals suitable for substrates and optoelectronics.^[26] The liquid encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) method involves pulling single crystals from a Ga-P melt encapsulated in molten boron oxide (B₂O₃) to suppress phosphorus evaporation. The process occurs at approximately 1,500 °C, with the seed crystal rotated at 10–20 rpm to ensure uniform growth and minimize thermal stresses. This technique produces cylindrical boules up to 2 inches in diameter, though contamination from the crucible and encapsulant can introduce oxygen impurities, typically at levels of 10¹⁷–10¹⁹ atoms/cm³.^[27]^[28]^[26] In the vertical Bridgman technique, directional solidification occurs in sealed quartz or boron nitride ampoules containing polycrystalline GaP, with the assembly lowered through a temperature gradient of 20–50 °C/cm. Internal heating and pressurization to 50 bars with inert gas address the high phosphorus vapor pressure (minimum 36 bars at the 1,467 °C melting point), enabling congruent melting without significant phosphorus loss. Crystals grown this way achieve lengths of 10–15 mm and diameters of 8–10 mm, exhibiting good translucency and cleavage, though boron nitride crucibles yield higher-quality single crystals compared to silica.^[26] Vapor phase epitaxy (VPE), often implemented as hydride VPE, deposits GaP layers on substrates using precursors like gallium chloride (GaCl) and phosphine (PH₃) in a hydrogen carrier gas at 800–1,000 °C. This open-tube or horizontal reactor method allows precise control over growth, producing epitaxial layers 1–100 µm thick with reduced defects compared to bulk methods, particularly when using a two-step process to promote single-domain orientation on mismatched substrates like silicon.^[25]^[29] Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) employs organometallic precursors such as trimethylgallium (TMGa) and phosphine (PH₃) in a low-pressure reactor, enabling low-temperature growth (typically 700–800 °C) and high-purity layers with defect densities below 10⁴ cm⁻² under optimized conditions like pulsed nucleation. This technique excels in producing thin films on silicon or GaP substrates, minimizing antiphase boundaries and dislocations through off-cut substrates and nucleation layers.^[30] A primary challenge in GaP crystal growth is the high phosphorus vapor pressure, which prevents congruent melting and leads to non-stoichiometric compositions, twinning, and dislocations (densities up to 10⁶–10⁸ cm⁻² in unoptimized growth). Encapsulation with B₂O₃, high-pressure ampoules, and controlled temperature gradients mitigate these issues, while doping (e.g., with sulfur or tellurium) and precise gradient control further reduce defects, though residual imperfections can slightly alter the bandgap by introducing shallow levels.^[26] For nanoscale structures, GaP nanowires are grown via laser ablation of a GaP-gallium oxide powder mixture in a quartz tube furnace at 800–1,000 °C under argon flow, yielding wires 20–50 nm in diameter and hundreds of micrometers long through an oxide-assisted vapor-liquid-solid mechanism. These defect-containing structures (with twins and stacking faults) enable studies of one-dimensional quantum effects but require careful purification to avoid metallic impurities.^[31]

Applications

Light-emitting diodes

Gallium phosphide (GaP) has been employed as both a substrate and active layer material in light-emitting diodes (LEDs) since the 1960s, enabling emission in the red (around 700 nm) and green (around 555 nm) regions of the visible spectrum.^[32] Its indirect bandgap of approximately 2.26 eV allows for visible light emission when radiative recombination is facilitated through impurities.^[32] Electroluminescence in GaP LEDs is achieved via p-n junction structures, where doping strategies tailor the emission color and efficiency. For green emission, n-type doping with sulfur (S) or tellurium (Te) is combined with isoelectronic nitrogen (N) traps, which localize excitons and overcome the indirect bandgap limitation to enable efficient recombination at room temperature.^[33] This nitrogen doping, pioneered at Bell Laboratories in the mid-1960s, resulted in initial external quantum efficiencies of about 0.5–1%, with peak emission near 565 nm for yellow-green light.^[33] Red emission, peaking around 700 nm, relies on p-type zinc (Zn) doping paired with oxygen (O) to form donor-acceptor pairs that promote radiative transitions. These diodes typically operate at a forward voltage of about 2.2 V and exhibit operational lifetimes exceeding 10,000 hours under standard conditions.^[34] The historical development of GaP LEDs accelerated in the early 1960s through efforts at Bell Laboratories, where researchers like R. A. Logan demonstrated efficient green electroluminescence via nitrogen doping in solution-grown p-n junctions.^[33] Similarly, red emission was advanced by M. Gershenzon and colleagues using Zn-O complexes, achieving early efficiencies around 0.1%. Commercial production of GaP-based red and green LEDs emerged by the late 1960s, following initial breakthroughs in visible-spectrum devices.^[32] Brightness improvements, driven by optimized nitrogen doping at Bell Labs, elevated output to medium levels, typically up to 10 millicandela (mcd), making them suitable for indicators and displays.^[35] GaP LEDs offered advantages such as low production costs due to straightforward synthesis and reliable performance in low-power applications, with the indirect bandgap challenges mitigated by impurity-induced radiative paths.^[32] However, their efficiencies remained lower than those of direct-bandgap materials like gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), limiting adoption for high-brightness needs.^[32] By the 1990s, GaP LEDs were largely phased out in favor of higher-efficiency indium gallium nitride (InGaN) devices for demanding illumination roles.^[32]

Substrates and other uses

Gallium phosphide (GaP) serves as a substrate for growing AlGaAs and InGaP layers in red and yellow light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers, enabling high-quality epitaxial structures despite lattice mismatch with these alloys.^[36] Commercial GaP wafers are produced in diameters up to 50 mm (2 inches), supporting fabrication for optoelectronic devices.^[37] Defect densities in these substrates are reduced through techniques like epitaxial lateral overgrowth, which filters threading dislocations during growth on patterned templates, improving material quality for device performance.^[38] In photonic devices, GaP enables the fabrication of optical metasurfaces that manipulate visible light for applications such as holograms and lenses, leveraging its high refractive index and low optical loss in the visible spectrum.^[39] These metasurfaces achieve precise phase control over wavefronts, allowing compact, flat optics with efficiencies suitable for integrated systems.^[40] Additionally, GaP-based high Q-factor nanocavities exceed Q > 1,700, supporting enhanced light-matter interactions in photonic crystal structures for visible wavelengths.^[39] GaP is employed as a buffer layer in III-V/Si multi-junction solar cells, particularly in GaAsP/Si tandems, where its wide bandgap facilitates epitaxial integration on silicon while minimizing defects.^[41] Research on these tandems has demonstrated efficiencies exceeding 23%.^[41] In other electronics, GaP is employed in high-temperature diodes and switches, benefiting from its thermal stability and wide bandgap that maintain performance under elevated conditions.^[42] It also supports anodic bonding processes for integrating GaP with other materials in atomic clocks, enabling robust, hermetic seals for precision timing devices. Emerging applications include GaP nanowires for quantum dots, which provide near-transform-limited photon emission for quantum optics and single-photon sources.^[43] Additionally, GaP serves as a phosphor material in displays, contributing to color conversion layers in LEDs for enhanced visible emission. The market for GaP is primarily driven by demand for LED substrates in optoelectronics, with annual production on the order of tons to meet growing needs in lighting and displays.^[44]

References

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