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Inert gas

An inert gas is a gas that does not undergo chemical reactions with other substances under a given set of conditions.^[1] The noble gases, a subgroup of elements in group 18 of the periodic table, are the most stable examples of inert gases due to their complete valence electron shells, which confer exceptional chemical stability and minimal reactivity under standard conditions.^[2] These elements include helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn), all of which exist as colorless, odorless, monatomic gases at room temperature and pressure.^[3] Their inert nature arises from electron configurations that fill the outermost shell—specifically, ns^2 np^6 for all except helium, which has $1s^2—resulting in no tendency to gain, lose, or share electrons readily.^[4] Although once thought completely nonreactive, some heavier noble gases like xenon and krypton can form compounds under extreme conditions, such as with fluorine or oxygen.^[2] In industrial contexts, the term "inert gas" also applies to other non-reactive gases like nitrogen or mixtures, used for blanketing and inerting to prevent oxidation or explosions. Noble gases exhibit weak interatomic forces, primarily London dispersion forces, leading to very low melting and boiling points that increase down the group due to rising atomic size and polarizability.^[2] They are found in trace amounts in Earth's atmosphere, with argon comprising the largest fraction at approximately 0.93% by volume, followed by much smaller concentrations of neon (0.0018%), helium (0.00052%), krypton (0.00011%), and xenon (0.000009%), while radon is radioactive and present only transiently.^[5] These gases are produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquefied air, with helium additionally sourced from natural gas deposits.^[6] Due to their nonflammable and nonreactive properties, inert gases—including noble gases and others like nitrogen—have diverse applications across industries and science. Helium is widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships, as a coolant in cryogenics and MRI machines, and as an inert atmosphere in welding and semiconductor manufacturing.^[6] Neon serves in advertising signs and high-voltage indicators owing to its red glow when electrified, while argon provides shielding in arc welding, fills incandescent and fluorescent lights to extend filament life, and insulates double-glazed windows.^[7] Krypton and xenon find roles in specialized lighting, such as airport runway lamps and medical imaging via xenon-enhanced CT scans, and both are employed in excimer lasers for eye surgery and microfabrication.^[6] Radon, despite its radioactivity, has limited use in radiation therapy but poses health risks as a natural indoor pollutant from uranium decay in soil.^[2] Beyond practical uses, noble gases serve as tracers in geochemistry and oceanography to study processes like mantle degassing and water circulation.^[8]

Fundamentals

Definition and Classification

Inert gases, also known as noble gases in their strict chemical sense, are a class of elements characterized by their minimal chemical reactivity under standard conditions, primarily due to their stable electron configurations featuring completely filled valence shells. This full outer electron shell—typically eight electrons for most noble gases (except helium, which has two)—prevents them from readily forming chemical bonds with other elements, as there is no tendency to gain, lose, or share electrons.^[2]^[9] The primary classification of inert gases encompasses the noble gases, which occupy Group 18 (or Group 0 in older notations) of the periodic table and include helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn). These monatomic gases are inherently inert because of their high ionization energies—the energy required to remove an electron—which are the highest among all elements, reflecting the strong attraction of the nucleus for their tightly bound valence electrons.^[2]^[9]^[10] Beyond the true noble gases, the term "inert gas" is sometimes applied more broadly to functionally inert gases that exhibit low reactivity in specific practical contexts, such as nitrogen (N₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), which do not support combustion or react with many materials under ambient conditions despite not having the same atomic stability as noble gases. For instance, argon serves as the most commonly used industrial inert gas due to its abundance in the atmosphere and effective non-reactivity in shielding applications, while helium is valued for its extremely low density—about one-seventh that of air—and complete non-flammability, making it ideal for lifting and cooling purposes.^[11]^[12]^[13]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Inert gases, also known as noble gases, exhibit remarkable chemical stability due to their valence electron configuration of ns²np⁶, which completes the octet and minimizes the tendency to gain, lose, or share electrons under standard conditions.^[4] This full outer shell results in high first ionization energies, making it energetically unfavorable to remove an electron; for example, helium has the highest value at 24.587 eV.^[14] Additionally, their low electron affinities—often near zero or effectively positive—further discourage the addition of electrons to form anions, reinforcing their inert nature.^[4] Despite this general inertness, exceptions occur under extreme conditions, particularly for heavier noble gases like xenon. Xenon difluoride (XeF₂) can be synthesized by the direct reaction of xenon gas with fluorine under electric discharge or ultraviolet irradiation, forming a stable solid compound at room temperature.^[15] Such compounds are rare and typically require strong oxidizing agents or high pressures, as the promotion of an electron from the filled valence shell to an empty orbital enables bonding.^[16] Physically, noble gases exist as monatomic molecules in the gaseous state at standard temperature and pressure (STP), lacking intermolecular forces beyond weak van der Waals interactions due to their closed-shell structure.^[4] They display low melting and boiling points that increase down the group, reflecting rising atomic mass and polarizability; helium, the lightest, has a boiling point of 4.22 K (-268.93°C), while radon, the heaviest, boils at 211.5 K (-61.65°C).^[17]^[18] Densities also vary significantly, with helium at 0.1786 g/L (the second least dense gas after dihydrogen) contrasting radon's 9.73 g/L, the highest among elemental gases at STP.^[17]^[18] Their spectroscopic properties arise from electronic transitions between discrete energy levels, producing characteristic emission spectra useful for identification. For instance, excited neon atoms emit a prominent red glow at around 640 nm due to transitions from higher 3p to 3s orbitals, a feature exploited in signage and lasers.^[19] Each noble gas yields unique line spectra, enabling precise elemental analysis in astrophysics and analytical chemistry.^[20]

Historical Development

Discovery of Noble Gases

In 1785, Henry Cavendish conducted experiments on air by passing electric sparks through it to combine oxygen and nitrogen, leaving behind a small residue of about 1% that resisted further reaction, which he described as an inert component of the atmosphere.^[21] This observation provided the first hint of unreactive gases in air, though Cavendish did not isolate or identify them further.^[22] The modern discovery of noble gases began with argon in 1894, when Lord Rayleigh noticed a discrepancy in the density of atmospheric nitrogen compared to chemically prepared nitrogen, leading him to collaborate with William Ramsay.^[23] They removed oxygen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide from air, then chemically reduced the nitrogen, isolating a heavier, inert gas that constituted roughly 1% of the atmosphere; they named it argon from the Greek word for "lazy."^[24] This breakthrough was announced to the Royal Society in January 1895.^[25] Helium was first detected in 1868 during a solar eclipse observed by French astronomer Pierre Janssen in India, who identified a novel yellow spectral line in the sun's corona, later confirmed independently by English astronomer Norman Lockyer using a spectroscope without an eclipse.^[26] Initially thought to exist only extraterrestrially, helium was isolated on Earth in 1895 by Ramsay, who extracted it from the uranium mineral cleveite and matched its spectrum to the solar observation.^[27] In 1898, Ramsay and his student Morris Travers discovered neon, krypton, and xenon by liquefying and fractionally distilling air, observing their distinct emission spectra; neon appeared as a bright red glow, krypton and xenon as white-blue lines.^[28] Radon followed in 1900, identified by German physicist Friedrich Ernst Dorn as a radioactive emanation from radium decay.^[29] Ramsay's contributions to isolating argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "in recognition of his services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air, and his determination of their place in the periodic system."^[30]

Evolution of Industrial Applications

The transition of inert gases from scientific novelties to industrial staples began in the early 20th century, when argon was first employed in incandescent light bulbs to mitigate filament oxidation. In 1913, physicist Irving Langmuir at General Electric developed gas-filled tungsten lamps, initially using nitrogen but soon incorporating argon for its superior inert properties, which extended bulb life and efficiency by reducing tungsten evaporation in the presence of oxygen.^[31] This application marked argon's initial commercial viability, as it allowed for brighter, longer-lasting lighting without the limitations of vacuum bulbs. By the 1910s and 1920s, argon-filled bulbs became standard in industrial and household use, demonstrating the practical value of noble gases in preventing oxidative degradation.^[32] In the mid-20th century, helium gained prominence in aviation and manufacturing, particularly during the interwar period and World War II. The U.S. Navy's rigid airship USS Shenandoah (ZR-1), launched in 1923, was the first to use helium as a non-flammable lifting gas, replacing hydrogen to enhance safety in large-scale airships through the 1930s.^[33] During WWII, helium's inert nature made it essential for shielded arc welding, especially in fabricating lightweight aircraft components from magnesium and aluminum, where it prevented oxidation in high-heat processes like Heliarc welding.^[34] Concurrently, nitrogen emerged as a economical alternative for blanketing in the expanding chemical industry, leveraging post-war advances in air separation to create oxygen-free environments for storing reactive compounds and preventing explosions or degradation.^[35] The post-WWII era saw a surge in inert gas applications driven by technological and regulatory advancements. In the 1940s, tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding was developed, with argon replacing helium as the preferred shielding gas due to its lower cost and stable arc properties, enabling precise welds on reactive metals for aerospace and nuclear industries.^[36] By the 1960s, inert gas systems for tanker ships were pioneered to reduce fire risks during oil transport, spurred by incidents like the 1967 Torrey Canyon disaster and leading to International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations under SOLAS that mandated such systems by the 1970s. Purification technologies also advanced, with cryogenic distillation processes scaling up in the 1950s through improved double-column rectification, allowing efficient separation and high-purity production of argon, nitrogen, and other inert gases from air on an industrial scale.^[37] Recent decades have highlighted supply challenges and sustainability efforts for inert gases. Helium shortages in the 2010s, driven by depleting natural reserves and rising demand for medical and scientific uses, prompted global recycling initiatives, such as closed-loop systems in MRI machines and welding operations to recover up to 90% of the gas.^[38] Economically, the inert gas sector has grown substantially, with global argon production reaching approximately 1.5 million metric tons annually by 2022, underscoring its critical role in welding, electronics, and metallurgy.^[39] These developments reflect inert gases' evolution into indispensable tools, supported by ongoing innovations in production and conservation.

Applications

Inerting and Blanketing Systems

Inerting and blanketing systems utilize noble gases, primarily argon, to establish oxygen-deficient atmospheres in storage tanks, pipelines, and process vessels for sensitive applications, maintaining oxygen concentrations below 5% to mitigate risks of combustion, explosions, or oxidative degradation.^[40]^[41] These systems are essential in industries handling highly reactive chemicals or perishable goods where even trace oxygen can trigger hazardous reactions, such as in wine preservation or semiconductor manufacturing.^[42] By leveraging the non-reactive nature of noble gases, these setups create a protective barrier that prevents ignition sources from propagating.^[43] The core mechanisms involve purging, which introduces noble gas to displace oxygen-rich air from the headspace, and continuous blanketing, which sustains a low-pressure noble gas overlay to counteract vacuum formation during liquid withdrawal or temperature changes.^[44] Purging is often performed intermittently during filling or maintenance, while blanketing operates steadily to preserve positive pressure and exclude atmospheric ingress.^[45] Argon is favored for its density (heavier than air), availability, and inertness in high-purity environments, though helium may be used in specialized cryogenic applications despite its lower density.^[46] System components typically include gas cylinders or on-site generators, with integrated oxygen analyzers employing electrochemical or zirconia sensors to provide continuous monitoring and regulate gas flow, ensuring compliance with safety thresholds.^[47]^[48] Industry standards guide implementation, with API Standard 2000 specifying venting requirements and blanketing practices for atmospheric storage tanks.^[49] Practical applications encompass argon blanketing in chemical storage to inhibit polymerization of sensitive monomers and in food packaging for oxygen-sensitive products, extending shelf life by curbing oxidation.^[50] A significant risk associated with these systems is asphyxiation in confined spaces, as noble gases displace breathable oxygen; mitigation requires atmospheric testing, ventilation, and personal protective equipment per occupational safety regulations.^[51]^[52]

Welding and Metal Processing

In welding and metal processing, inert gases such as argon and helium serve as shielding agents to protect the molten weld pool from atmospheric contamination by oxygen and nitrogen, thereby preventing oxidation, nitriding, and porosity that could compromise weld integrity.^[53] These gases envelop the arc and weld area, creating a localized inert atmosphere that stabilizes the electric arc and facilitates cleaner fusion.^[54] Argon, being denser than air, effectively displaces reactive gases, while helium's higher thermal conductivity enhances heat transfer to the workpiece.^[55] Key welding processes utilizing inert gases include Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW, commonly known as MIG), Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW, or TIG), and Plasma Arc Welding (PAW). In MIG welding, mixtures of argon with carbon dioxide (typically 75-80% argon) are often employed for semi-inert shielding, providing arc stability and adequate penetration for ferrous metals, though pure inert gases like argon can be used for non-ferrous applications.^[56] TIG welding relies on pure argon as the primary shielding gas, using a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce precise, high-quality welds with minimal spatter.^[57] Plasma Arc Welding constricts the arc through a nozzle with inert plasma gas (usually argon), supplemented by outer shielding layers of argon or helium, enabling deeper penetration and faster welding speeds compared to standard TIG.^[58] The advantages of inert gas shielding include reduced weld defects such as inclusions and cracks, resulting in stronger, more aesthetically pleasing joints. Helium, with its superior thermal conductivity (approximately five times that of argon), promotes broader and deeper weld penetration, which is particularly beneficial for thicker sections, though it requires higher flow rates and can increase arc voltage.^[55] These processes are especially suited for reactive and non-ferrous metals like aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium, where inert shielding prevents surface oxidation and maintains material properties.^[59] For aluminum, argon provides excellent arc stability and cleaning action; stainless steel benefits from argon's low reactivity to avoid carbide formation; and titanium demands pure argon to shield against embrittlement at high temperatures.^[60] While inert gases excel in non-ferrous welding, alternatives like pure carbon dioxide or oxygen-argon mixtures are used for carbon steel in Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding, where the active components enhance penetration but introduce some reactivity, making them unsuitable for oxidation-sensitive materials.^[56]

Marine and Aviation Uses

In the marine sector, noble gases such as argon are used in specialized fire prevention and suppression systems on ships, including Argonite (a 50% argon and 50% nitrogen blend) for protecting engine rooms, machinery spaces, and cargo holds by displacing oxygen to below 12-15% without leaving residue or posing conductivity risks.^[61]^[62] These systems comply with SOLAS requirements for fixed fire-extinguishing installations, providing rapid inerting to mitigate fire risks in enclosed areas. The design incorporates gas cylinders, distribution piping, and detection systems to release the mixture upon fire detection, ensuring safe evacuation and minimal environmental impact.^[52] Benefits include effective suppression of electrical and flammable liquid fires, with argon selected for its non-toxicity and density that allows even distribution. Challenges involve ensuring proper venting to avoid over-pressurization and regular maintenance of cylinder integrity.^[63] In aviation, noble gases like argon contribute to fire suppression through inert gas mixtures such as Argonite for cargo compartments and avionics bays, diluting oxygen to non-combustible levels (typically below 12%) without ozone-depleting chemicals, as required by FAA and EASA standards for clean agent systems.^[64] These systems replaced halons under the Montreal Protocol and are integrated into aircraft fire protection, releasing upon smoke detection to flood protected areas. Argon's inertness ensures no corrosion or residue, making it suitable for sensitive electronics. Complementing this, experimental research has explored helium for inerting in high-altitude or cryogenic fuel systems, though not standard.^[65] The primary benefit is enhanced safety in flammable environments, with significant risk reduction in fire propagation. Challenges include system weight and ensuring reliability across flight conditions.^[66]

Diving and Respiratory Applications

Inert gases, particularly helium, play a critical role in diving and respiratory applications by enabling safe operations in extreme pressure environments. Helium-oxygen mixtures, known as heliox, were developed in the 1930s by the U.S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit to address limitations of air diving, such as nitrogen narcosis and increased breathing resistance at depth. Early experiments, conducted between 1937 and 1939, demonstrated that substituting helium for nitrogen in breathing gases allowed divers to reach greater depths without the intoxicating effects of nitrogen, while also reducing work of breathing due to helium's lower density—approximately one-seventh that of air at standard conditions. These mixtures were initially tested in hyperbaric chambers and open-water dives, marking a shift from compressed air to synthetic gases for deep-sea and caisson work, where decompression sickness (caisson disease) was prevalent in tunnel construction.^[67]^[68] In modern technical diving, heliox remains essential for depths beyond 50 meters, where it prevents nitrogen narcosis by eliminating nitrogen from the breathing mix, allowing clear cognition during extended bottom times. For even deeper excursions, trimix—a ternary blend of helium, nitrogen, and oxygen—is preferred to balance helium's benefits with nitrogen's slower tissue saturation, mitigating high-pressure nervous syndrome (HPNS), a tremor-inducing condition associated with pure heliox at pressures exceeding 20 atmospheres. Physiologically, helium's inert nature avoids chemical toxicity, and its low density (0.1786 kg/m³ compared to nitrogen's 1.2506 kg/m³) eases respiratory effort by reducing airway resistance, which is particularly beneficial in closed-circuit rebreathers used in scientific and commercial diving. These systems, evolved from 1930s prototypes, recycle exhaled gases while adding metered oxygen and inert diluents like helium, extending dive durations while minimizing gas consumption. Historical applications extended to caisson environments in the 1930s, where heliox reduced narcosis in workers under hyperbaric conditions, paving the way for contemporary scuba and rebreather technologies.^[69]^[70] Despite these advantages, helium's high diffusivity—about 2.65 times that of nitrogen—poses challenges by accelerating inert gas uptake and offgassing in tissues, often necessitating longer decompression obligations to prevent bubble formation and decompression sickness. This "helium penalty" in dive planning models extends total ascent times, particularly for bounce profiles, as fast tissue compartments saturate and desaturate more rapidly, requiring additional deep stops for safety. Argon, another inert gas, finds non-respiratory use in dry suits for cold-water diving, where its thermal conductivity (0.016 W/m·K) is roughly 32% lower than air's, providing superior insulation against hypothermia without contributing to decompression risks. In medical contexts, helium supports non-respiratory applications, such as cryocooling in MRI machines, leveraging its inertness and low boiling point (4.2 K) for superconducting magnet operation, though it is not inhaled in these scenarios.^[71]^[72]^[73]

Other Industrial and Scientific Uses

Inert gases play a vital role in electronics manufacturing, particularly argon, which is used in plasma etching and sputtering processes for semiconductors to minimize contamination from reactive species. For instance, argon ions facilitate precise material removal in reactive ion etching of thin films like indium gallium zinc oxide (IGZO), enabling the fabrication of high-performance displays and circuits without introducing impurities.^[74] Similarly, in ionized magnetron sputtering, argon plasma enhances ion density for depositing uniform metallic layers on silicon substrates, supporting advancements in microelectronics.^[75] Cryogenic applications leverage helium's exceptional thermal properties to achieve ultra-low temperatures essential for superconductivity. Liquid helium cools superconducting magnets in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN to 1.9 K, enabling the operation of niobium-titanium coils that generate the strong magnetic fields required for particle acceleration.^[76] This superfluid helium regime, below the lambda point of 2.17 K, provides efficient heat transfer and maintains the magnets' zero-resistance state during high-energy physics experiments.^[77] In lighting technologies, neon and argon fill gas discharge lamps, where electrical discharges excite the gases to emit visible light, powering neon signs and fluorescent tubes with characteristic colors.^[78] Krypton, valued for its high ionization potential, is employed in photographic flash lamps to produce intense, brief pulses of white light, essential for high-speed imaging in scientific and commercial photography.^[6] Analytical instrumentation relies on inert gases for precise sample handling, with helium predominantly serving as the carrier gas in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) due to its chemical inertness and optimal chromatographic efficiency.^[79] This allows non-reactive transport of volatile compounds through the column, preserving sample integrity for accurate mass spectral identification in environmental and pharmaceutical analyses.^[80] Emerging applications in space propulsion utilize xenon in gridded ion thrusters, where electrical fields ionize and accelerate the gas to generate efficient thrust for deep-space missions. NASA's Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT), operating at up to 7 kW, achieves specific impulses over 4,000 seconds by expelling xenon ions at velocities 7-10 times those of chemical rockets, as demonstrated in missions like Dawn.^[81]^[82]

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Nitrogen gas flushing extends shelf life by 2 weeks, and increases stability of volatile compounds and sensory perception of potato crisps.
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[PDF] HAZARDS OF OXYGEN- DEFICIENT ATMOSPHERES - EIGA
5.3 Areas near where inert gases are vented or can collect The risk of asphyxiation can occur outdoors in the vicinity of: • gas leaks; • vent exhausts; • ...
[55]
What's Welding Shielding Gases & Why are They Important? | TWS
Feb 21, 2018 · Shielding gases are inert or semi-inert gases that protect the weld from these harmful gases in the atmosphere.
[56]
How Is Argon Used in Welding?| UTI - Universal Technical Institute
Jul 24, 2025 · Several welding techniques use shielding gases to help protect the welds. Argon is a common choice for GMAW and GTAW welds.
[57]
Variables that Affect Weld Penetration - Lincoln Electric
Shielding gases with a higher rate of thermal conductivity, such as 100% carbon dioxide (CO2) or 100% helium (He), will produce welds with a broader, deeper ...
[58]
What Is Gas Metal Arc Welding? | Refrigeration School, Inc. (RSI)
Sep 4, 2018 · Active or inert gas can be used to protect the arc and the weld from environmental contamination. When active gas is employed, the process is ...Rsi Is A Great Training... · Jumpstart Your Skilled... · A Highly Applicable Skill
[59]
Gas shielded arc welding processes (TIG/MIG/MAG) | OpenLearn
Mar 8, 2018 · Argon is used to shield the weld, and direct current with the electrode being positive to generate more heat for melting.
[60]
Introduction to Plasma Arc Welding - ABICOR BINZEL
Plasma arc welding is a shielding gas welding process with inert gas and a further development of the TIG welding procedure. The arc burns between a ...
[61]
4 Different Types of Welding Processes [+WELD PRO TIPS] | NEIT
Aug 16, 2020 · Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW/TIG); Shielded Metal Arc ... GTAW: Suitable for welding aluminum, stainless steel, and other exotic metals.
[62]
Review of GTAW Welding Parameters - Scientific Research Publishing
Argon is also used as back side shielding gas, mainly in welding of stainless steels, aluminum alloys and reactive metals. ... Shielding Gas on TIG Welding of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[63]
Scrubber, scrubbing tower - Wärtsilä
A cleaning chamber in an inert gas plant. The purpose of the scrubber is to cool the flue gas and remove most of the sulphur dioxide and particulate soot.
[64]
[PDF] Regulations and Guidelines For Inert Gas Systems - DTIC
This regulation is the result of several years of study internationally by the IMCO Subconuit- jtee on Fire Protection, in which some 20 countries participated.
[65]
[PDF] AC 120-98A - Federal Aviation Administration
Apr 11, 2017 · Reason for Concern: The NGS installation is designed to provide the proper level of nitrogen to the center wing fuel tank (CWT) in order to ...
[66]
[PDF] “Halon Replacement Options for Aircraft” Robert E. Tapscott
The extinguishing properties of argon are similar to those of nitrogen for Class A, B, and C fires; however, unlike nitrogen, argon is suitable for Class D ...
[67]
[PDF] Fuel Tank Flammability Reduction (FTFR) Rule - Advisory Circular
Jun 22, 2012 · The FTFR rule, published by the FAA, requires steps to reduce fuel tank flammability in transport category airplanes to ensure safety.
[68]
[PDF] Report on Use of Helium Oxygen Mixtures for Diving - DTIC
1. During the period 1 September 1937 to 1 April 1939, experiments have been conducted in the Experimental Diving Unit substituting helium oxygen mixtures for ...
[69]
NEDU: Helium-Oxygen Breathing Mixture - Naval Undersea Museum
In the 1930s, NEDU developed and perfected a new breathing gas mixture using helium. Breathing helium-oxygen made deep-sea diving safer and let divers dive ...
[70]
Heliox, nitrox, and trimix diving; hyperbaric oxygen treatment
Apr 1, 2007 · Nitrox is used for relatively shallow recreational dives, heliox is used for deep diving, and trimix is used for dives to depths at which the high-pressure ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
[PDF] Diving Medicine for Scuba Divers - USC Dornsife
... (heliox) mixture is breathed, because heliox is less dense than air. It is likely that resistance to breathing will ultimately limit the depth to which.
[72]
Eliminating The Helium Penalty - Shearwater Research
Feb 27, 2022 · The so-called “helium penalty,” ie the extra stops and decompression time required when breathing helium mixes on a surface-to-surface bounce dive, does not ...
[73]
Decompression Theory (1/2) - New Jersey Scuba Diving
For helium, half-times are thought to be about 2.65 times faster than nitrogen, since helium diffuses more quickly. If pressure is reduced by too much on a ...
[74]
Argon used as dry suit insulation gas for cold-water diving - PMC
Jun 3, 2013 · Air is the traditional dry suit inflation gas, whereas the thermal conductivity of argon is approximately 32% lower compared to that of air.
[75]
Dry Etching Characteristics of InGaZnO Thin Films Under Inductively ...
Dec 20, 2024 · The dry etching characteristics of the IGZO thin film in the ICP-RIE mode were investigated using the HCl-Ar etching gas mixture. The HCl gas ...<|separator|>
[76]
Magnetic-field-enhanced rf argon plasma for ionized sputtering of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · A multipole magnetic field was used to increase the ion density of an inductively coupled rf (13.5 MHZ) argon plasma for ionized magnetron ...
[77]
LHC filling with liquid helium at 4 kelvin - CERN
Dec 17, 2014 · LHC filling with liquid helium at 4 kelvin. The CERN cryogenics team are filling the LHC with liquid helium, cooling entire sections to below 4K.
[78]
Superconductivity and superfluid helium at the large hadron collider
The main reason for superfluid helium cooling of the. LHC magnets is the lower temperature that extends the operating range of the Nb-Ti superconductor. However ...
[79]
Physics of Light and Color - Sources of Visible Light
Sep 7, 2018 · Argon-ion lasers (Figure 8) produce powerful spectral emissions at 488 and 514 nanometers, while krypton gas lasers exhibit large peaks at ...
[80]
Hydrogen or Helium Conservation in Gas Chromatography Mass ...
Jun 23, 2023 · The only alternative carrier gas to helium that Agilent recommends for gas chromatography mass spectrometry is hydrogen.
[81]
Hydrogen as a Carrier Gas for GC and GC–MS | LCGC International
A carrier gas must be inert to solutes and stationary phase, must be free of detectable contaminants, must be readily available at a reasonable price, and must ...
[82]
Ion Propulsion - NASA Science
Nov 2, 2024 · The thrusters work by using an electrical charge to accelerate ions from xenon fuel to a speed 7-10 times that of chemical engines.
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[PDF] NASA's Evolutionary Xenon Thruster–Commercial (NEXT–C)
NASA's Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT) is a 7-kW class gridded ion thruster propulsion system. Gridded ion thrusters, first demonstrated at NASA Glenn ...