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Gene amplification

Gene amplification is a genetic phenomenon in which the copy number of a specific gene or chromosomal region increases within a genome, often resulting in tandem repeats or extrachromosomal elements that elevate gene expression beyond normal levels. This process can occur spontaneously or under selective pressure, such as environmental stress or therapeutic agents, and is observed across prokaryotes and eukaryotes.^[1] Mechanisms of gene amplification vary by organism and context but commonly involve errors in DNA replication, recombination, or repair. In bacteria, amplification frequently arises through homologous recombination mediated by proteins like RecA, or non-homologous pathways such as single-strand annealing and template switching, leading to rates as high as 10^{-3} per cell per generation for certain loci.^[1] In eukaryotic cells, particularly cancer cells, key mechanisms include breakage-fusion-bridge (BFB) cycles, which produce intrachromosomal homogeneously staining regions (HSRs), and the formation of double-minute chromosomes (DMs), unstable extrachromosomal DNA structures that segregate unevenly during mitosis.^[2] Other replication-based errors, like double rolling-circle replication or fork stalling and template switching (FoSTeS), can also generate amplicons containing multiple gene copies. Biologically, gene amplification drives adaptation and evolution by boosting the dosage of advantageous genes, such as those encoding efflux pumps or metabolic enzymes under stress. In prokaryotes, it enables rapid, reversible antibiotic resistance; for instance, amplification of the norA gene in Staphylococcus aureus increases fluoroquinolone efflux by 3- to 24-fold, contributing to heteroresistance and treatment failure.^[3] In eukaryotes, it plays roles in development and pathology: amplification of the DHFR gene confers resistance to the chemotherapy drug methotrexate, while in cancer, recurrent amplifications of oncogenes like MYC (in 15-40% of tumors) or ERBB2 (in 15-20% of breast cancers) promote uncontrolled proliferation, genomic instability, and therapy evasion.^[2] These events are detected via techniques like comparative genomic hybridization or next-generation sequencing, highlighting amplification's dual role as an evolutionary tool and a driver of disease.

Definition and Overview

Definition

Gene amplification refers to an increase in the copy number of a specific gene or DNA segment within the genome, occurring without a proportional increase in the overall genome size.^[4] This process generates multiple copies of the targeted region, often as tandem repeats integrated into chromosomes or as extrachromosomal elements, which can enhance the expression of the associated genes.^[5] Gene amplification is distinct from gene duplication, which creates a single additional, stable copy of a gene that may evolve new functions over time, whereas amplification involves the reiteration of multiple copies, frequently in a reversible or context-specific manner to rapidly elevate gene dosage.^[1] It also differs from transcriptional upregulation, in which the expression level of a gene rises due to enhanced mRNA synthesis from the existing single DNA copy, without any change in genomic copy number.^[6] A key consequence of gene amplification is the potential for increased protein production, as the multiplied DNA templates support higher rates of transcription and translation.^[7] In pathological contexts such as cancer, this can lead to overexpression of oncogenes, promoting tumor growth.^[8] The replicated DNA segment itself is termed an amplicon, referring to the unit of chromosomal material that undergoes and contains the amplified genetic content.^[9]

Historical Background

The concept of gene amplification as a biological mechanism emerged in the mid-20th century through studies on developmental processes in model organisms. In 1968, researchers discovered that ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes are selectively amplified up to a thousandfold in the oocytes of the frog Xenopus laevis, producing extrachromosomal copies to support high levels of ribosome synthesis during oogenesis.^[10] This finding, based on DNA hybridization and cytological observations, marked the first clear evidence of site-specific gene amplification in eukaryotes and highlighted its role in meeting the demands of rapid cellular production.^[11] Building on this, investigations in the 1970s revealed similar amplification events in insects. In Drosophila melanogaster, chorion genes encoding eggshell proteins were found to undergo localized amplification in ovarian follicle cells during late oogenesis, enabling the swift assembly of the eggshell structure. Key experiments using DNA quantification and polytene chromosome analysis demonstrated that these genes increase in copy number by 60- to 100-fold, a process regulated by developmental cues.^[12] Concurrently, gene amplification gained attention in pathology, particularly cancer, where double-minute chromosomes—small, extrachromosomal DNA fragments—were recognized in tumor cells during the 1970s. These structures, first noted in human malignancies like neuroblastoma, were shown to represent amplified genomic regions conferring growth advantages to cancer cells.^[13] The 1980s brought milestones in understanding amplification's pathological implications. Oncogene amplification, exemplified by the MYC proto-oncogene, was identified in various human cancers, with early reports documenting c-MYC amplification in promyelocytic leukemia cell lines such as HL-60, and translocations leading to overexpression in Burkitt lymphoma.^[14]

Molecular Mechanisms

General Processes

Gene amplification is a fundamental process in which specific DNA segments are replicated to increase copy number, enabling cells to adapt to selective pressures or environmental challenges. This occurs through various molecular mechanisms that exploit errors in DNA replication and repair, leading to extra copies either integrated into the chromosome or maintained as extrachromosomal elements. These processes are observed in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and can be triggered by cellular stress, resulting in tandem repeats, duplications, or circular DNAs.^[2] Core mechanisms include unequal sister chromatid exchange (USCE), where misalignment during homologous recombination between sister chromatids generates tandem duplications of genomic regions. USCE involves crossover events that unequally partition DNA segments, producing one chromatid with duplicated sequences and another with deletions. This process relies on the recombination machinery, such as Rad51 in eukaryotes. Additionally, replication fork stalling, often due to obstacles like secondary DNA structures or nucleotide imbalances, leads to over-replication through fork collapse and restart via template switching. Stalled forks generate double-strand breaks (DSBs) that, if not properly repaired, initiate iterative copying of nearby sequences, amplifying gene copies during subsequent S phases.^[15]^[16]^[17] Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) formation represents another key pathway, where amplified segments are excised from chromosomes and circularized into autonomous elements like double minutes. This arises from DSBs processed by microhomology-mediated break-induced replication or end-joining, creating acentric circles that replicate independently and segregate unevenly during mitosis. DNA polymerases, particularly error-prone translesion synthesis polymerases like Polη, play a critical role by facilitating template switching at stalled forks or repair sites, promoting rearrangements that favor amplification. Repair pathways, including homologous recombination (HR) errors—such as unequal crossovers or break-induced replication gone awry—further contribute by misdirecting DSB resolution toward duplication rather than faithful restoration. Non-homologous end-joining variants, like microhomology-mediated end joining, also generate ecDNA by joining short homologous sequences at break ends.^[18]^[19]^[2] The amplification process unfolds in distinct stages: initiation, propagation, and stabilization. Initiation typically begins with stress-induced DNA breaks, such as those from replication fork collapse or chromosome fragility, creating substrates for aberrant repair. Propagation involves iterative replication or recombination events, like repeated template switching or segregation of ecDNAs, exponentially increasing copy number over cell cycles. Stabilization occurs when amplified sequences integrate into the genome via HR or end-joining, forming stable homogeneously staining regions, or persist as episomes if replication origins are retained.^[2]^[1] Influencing factors include replication stress from environmental mutagens, which overwhelm fork progression and activate error-prone polymerases, or intrinsic elements like oncogene-induced hyper-replication that destabilize forks. Defective checkpoints, such as p53 loss, exacerbate these by allowing propagation of unstable intermediates, while sequence-specific features like palindromes or fragile sites serve as hotspots for break formation and unequal exchanges.^[2]^[16]

Specific Models

One prominent model of gene amplification is the breakage-fusion-bridge (BFB) cycle, initially described in maize where unprotected chromosome ends lead to fusions forming dicentric chromosomes. During anaphase, these dicentric structures form bridges that stretch and break at random points, generating unbalanced daughter cells with deletions or duplications; the broken ends then fuse again, perpetuating the cycle and resulting in intrachromosomal amplification through iterative uneven breakage and rearrangement.^[20] This process often initiates from telomere dysfunction and can produce complex amplicon structures, such as inverted repeats or palindromes, facilitating high-copy number gains of specific genes. In contrast, double-minute chromosomes (DMs) represent acentric extrachromosomal elements that harbor amplified genes, first observed in antifolate-resistant Chinese hamster cells and human neuroblastoma lines. These small, circular DNA molecules lack centromeres, leading to irregular segregation during mitosis where they are randomly distributed to daughter cells, often resulting in heterogeneous copy numbers and selection for cells with higher amplification under drug pressure. DMs enable rapid copy number increases because their replication is independent of the chromosomal cycle, potentially amplifying oncogenes like MYC to hundreds of copies, though their instability can also lead to loss in the absence of selective advantage.^[21] Homogeneously staining regions (HSRs) describe stable, integrated chromosomal segments containing tandem arrays of amplified DNA, also identified in drug-resistant mammalian cell lines alongside DMs. Unlike DMs, HSRs are centromere-linked and segregate evenly during cell division, providing a more stable mechanism for maintaining high gene copy numbers over generations; they often arise from integration of extrachromosomal elements or direct intrachromosomal duplication events. This contrast with DMs highlights HSRs' role in persistent amplification, where the uniform staining pattern in cytogenetic preparations reflects the repetitive, non-banded nature of the amplified locus.^[21] Other models include onion-skin replication, observed in prokaryotes like Bacillus subtilis, where stress-induced over-initiation of replication forks at an origin creates layered, multimers of replicated DNA resembling onion skins, leading to tandem duplications and amplification of nearby genes.^[22] Additionally, small DNA fragment-driven amplification (SFDA) involves short homologous fragments invading chromosomal regions, triggering repair-dependent duplication or extrachromosomal circle formation, as demonstrated in yeast models where Rad52 and Rad59 proteins facilitate boundary-defined amplification events.^[23]

Natural Gene Amplification

In Development and Physiology

Gene amplification plays a crucial role in eukaryotic development by enabling the rapid production of specific proteins required for tissue differentiation and physiological processes. In Drosophila melanogaster, the chorion protein genes, which encode eggshell structural components, undergo regulated amplification in ovarian follicle cells during late oogenesis. This process increases gene copy numbers up to 30-fold, primarily through repeated origin firing, allowing for the synthesis of large quantities of chorion proteins within a short developmental window of approximately 6 hours.^[24] Similarly, in amphibian oocytes such as those of Xenopus laevis, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes are amplified extrachromosomally, forming multiple nucleoli that support massive ribosome biogenesis essential for early embryonic development. This amplification results in thousands of gene copies, disproportionate to somatic cells, facilitating the accumulation of ribosomes needed for the oocyte's translational demands post-fertilization.^[25]^[26] In plants, endoreduplication serves as a form of gene amplification during development, where cells replicate DNA without mitosis, leading to polyploid nuclei with elevated gene dosages in specific tissues. For instance, in Arabidopsis thaliana trichomes and endosperm, endoreduplication increases ploidy levels up to 64C or higher, enhancing the expression of genes involved in cell expansion and nutrient storage. This mechanism provides an evolutionary advantage by allowing rapid metabolic scaling without cell division, optimizing resource allocation in growth-constrained environments.^[27] Prokaryotes also utilize gene amplification for physiological adaptation, particularly in response to environmental cues. In bacteria like Escherichia coli, multiple copies of rRNA operons (typically 7 in wild-type strains) enable heightened ribosome production and faster growth rates under nutrient-rich conditions, conferring a selective advantage for rapid proliferation. Under nutrient stress, such as nutrient limitation, bacteria can transiently amplify resistance-related genes, including those for efflux pumps, to adapt to sublethal antibiotic exposure without permanent mutations. This reversible amplification, often 3- to 24-fold, boosts survival by increasing gene dosage for stress response proteins, allowing quick reversion once the stressor is removed.^[28]^[3] Regulatory controls ensure precise timing and tissue specificity of gene amplification, preventing dysregulation while maximizing efficiency. In Drosophila follicle cells, amplification is initiated by tissue-specific factors binding to origins at defined developmental stages (e.g., stages 10B-13 of oogenesis), coordinated with hormonal cues like ecdysone. In plants, endoreduplication is governed by cyclin-dependent kinases and transcription factors that trigger S-phase entry in a cell-type-specific manner, such as in differentiating root cells. These controls, including the onion-skin model of iterative replication, highlight evolutionary benefits for meeting acute protein demands in development and adaptation.^[24]

In Pathological Conditions

Gene amplification in pathological conditions refers to the aberrant and uncontrolled replication of specific genomic regions, often leading to oncogene overexpression and disease progression. In cancer, this process is a hallmark of genomic instability, where amplified genes drive tumor growth, metastasis, and resistance to therapy. For instance, amplification of the HER2 oncogene occurs in approximately 15-20% of breast cancers, resulting in increased HER2 protein levels that promote cell proliferation and survival. Similarly, MYC amplification is observed in up to 20% of various solid tumors, including breast, lung, and ovarian cancers, enhancing transcriptional activity and cellular transformation. Mechanisms underlying pathological gene amplification in diseases include breakage-fusion-bridge (BFB) cycles and the formation of double minutes (DMs), which contribute to intratumor heterogeneity and therapeutic resistance. BFB cycles, initiated by telomere dysfunction or DNA breaks, lead to repeated amplification events that select for aggressive clones, as seen in EGFR amplification in non-small cell lung cancer, where it confers resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors in about 5-10% of resistant cases. DMs, extrachromosomal circular DNA structures, facilitate rapid amplification of oncogenes like MYC, allowing tumors to evade apoptosis and adapt to environmental stresses. These mechanisms exacerbate disease by generating diverse subpopulations within tumors, complicating treatment responses.^[29] Beyond cancer, gene amplification manifests in other pathologies, such as antimicrobial resistance in bacteria and viral evolution. In bacteria like Escherichia coli, amplification of drug-resistance genes, such as those encoding efflux pumps, can increase copy numbers up to 50-fold under antibiotic pressure, enabling survival and dissemination.^[30] Viral genomes undergo amplification during lytic replication phases, as in herpesviruses, to boost virion production and contribute to acute disease manifestations. Rare developmental disorders also arise from genomic dosage imbalances; for example, duplication of the 17p11.2 region in Potocki-Lupski syndrome leads to intellectual disability and congenital anomalies due to gene dosage effects. Clinically, pathological gene amplification correlates with adverse outcomes, serving as a prognostic indicator in multiple malignancies. In solid tumors, amplification events are detected in 10-20% of cases, often associating with reduced overall survival; for HER2-amplified breast cancers, patients face a 2-3 times higher risk of recurrence without targeted intervention. Such amplifications also predict responsiveness to specific therapies, underscoring their role in personalized medicine, though detection methods like fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) are essential for confirmation.

Artificial Gene Amplification

Polymerase Chain Reaction

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a widely used in vitro technique for exponentially amplifying specific DNA segments, enabling the production of millions to billions of copies from a small initial sample. Developed in the mid-1980s, PCR relies on the cyclical repetition of three key steps: denaturation, annealing, and extension, facilitated by a thermostable DNA polymerase. This method has revolutionized molecular biology by allowing targeted gene amplification without the need for living cells, making it essential for research, diagnostics, and forensic applications.^[31]^[32] The core components of a PCR reaction include template DNA, which serves as the starting material containing the target sequence; two oligonucleotide primers that flank the region to be amplified; deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs) as building blocks for new DNA strands; a thermostable DNA polymerase, such as Taq polymerase derived from Thermus aquaticus, which withstands high temperatures; and a buffer solution to maintain optimal pH and ionic conditions. The reaction proceeds through thermal cycling: denaturation at approximately 95°C separates the double-stranded DNA into single strands; annealing at 50-60°C allows primers to hybridize to complementary sequences on the template; and extension at 72°C enables the polymerase to synthesize new DNA strands from the primers using dNTPs. Typically, 20-40 cycles are performed, with each cycle roughly doubling the number of target molecules, resulting in exponential amplification where the theoretical yield after n cycles is $2^n times the initial template amount—for instance, 30 cycles can produce about 1 billion copies from a single starting molecule, though efficiency is often lower in practice due to limiting reagents.^[31]^[32]^[33] Several variants of PCR enhance its utility for specific purposes in gene amplification. Real-time PCR (qPCR) incorporates fluorescent probes or dyes to monitor amplification in real time, allowing quantification of starting template amounts by measuring the cycle threshold (Ct) value, where fluorescence crosses a detection threshold; this was pioneered using ethidium bromide intercalation during the reaction.^[34] Reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) extends PCR to RNA targets by first using reverse transcriptase to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA), followed by standard PCR amplification, enabling analysis of gene expression from mRNA.^[35] These modifications maintain the core exponential principle but add capabilities for quantitative or RNA-based applications. Despite its power, PCR has notable limitations that can affect reliability. Amplification bias arises from uneven primer efficiencies, GC content variations, or secondary structures in the template, leading to over- or under-representation of certain sequences. Contamination risks are high, as even trace amounts of extraneous DNA can amplify exponentially, necessitating strict laboratory controls like uracil-DNA glycosylase treatment. Additionally, standard PCR is limited to amplicon lengths typically under 5 kb, as longer fragments reduce efficiency due to polymerase processivity constraints, though specialized long-range variants can extend this to 10-20 kb.^[36]^[33]^[37]

Cloning and Vector-Based Methods

Cloning and vector-based methods represent a cornerstone of artificial gene amplification, enabling the propagation of specific DNA sequences through host organisms. The process begins with the isolation of the target DNA fragment, which is then inserted into a suitable vector, such as a plasmid or viral vector, to create recombinant DNA. This insertion is typically achieved by digesting both the target DNA and the vector with restriction endonucleases to generate compatible sticky or blunt ends, followed by ligation using T4 DNA ligase to form a stable recombinant molecule. The recombinant vector is subsequently introduced into a host cell, most commonly Escherichia coli, via transformation methods like heat shock or electroporation. Transformed cells are selected using antibiotic resistance markers incorporated into the vector, such as ampicillin resistance, allowing only recombinant-containing cells to survive and proliferate. As the host cells replicate, the vector—and thus the inserted gene—is amplified exponentially, yielding billions of copies per culture.^[38]^[39] Traditional restriction enzyme-ligation cloning remains a foundational technique for gene amplification, relying on the precise cutting and joining of DNA fragments as pioneered in the early 1970s. This method is versatile for constructing libraries or expressing genes but can be labor-intensive due to the need for compatible restriction sites. To streamline insertion, especially for PCR-amplified products, PCR-based cloning variants like TA and TOPO methods have been developed. In TA cloning, the non-template adenosine (A) overhangs added by Taq polymerase to PCR products are ligated into vectors with complementary thymidine (T) overhangs, enabling rapid, directional insertion without additional enzymatic modification. Similarly, TOPO cloning exploits the activity of vaccinia virus topoisomerase I, which covalently binds to the vector's overhangs, facilitating immediate ligation of PCR products in a ligase-independent manner. These approaches enhance efficiency for high-throughput applications while maintaining the in vivo amplification scale of bacterial replication.^[40] The amplification achieved through these vector-based systems is immense, with a single bacterial culture often producing 10^9 to 10^12 copies of the recombinant plasmid, sufficient for downstream analyses like sequencing or protein expression. Shuttle vectors extend this capability by incorporating origins of replication functional in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic hosts, such as E. coli and yeast, allowing seamless transfer and amplification across systems. Advanced recombination-based methods, like Gateway cloning, further improve versatility by using site-specific recombination from bacteriophage λ to shuttle DNA fragments between vectors without restriction enzymes, supporting modular assembly of multi-gene constructs. For larger genomic regions exceeding 100 kb, yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) provide essential capacity, mimicking natural chromosomes with telomeres, centromeres, and autonomously replicating sequences to stably propagate megabase-sized inserts in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These methods collectively enable precise, scalable gene amplification tailored to research needs.^[38]

Isothermal Amplification Methods

Isothermal amplification methods provide alternatives to thermal cycling PCR for in vitro gene amplification, operating at a constant temperature to simplify equipment needs and enable point-of-care applications. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), developed in 2000, uses 4-6 primers targeting 6-8 distinct regions of the DNA template for high specificity and efficiency, employing a strand-displacing DNA polymerase like Bst from Geobacillus stearothermophilus. The reaction, typically at 60-65°C, forms loop structures that accelerate amplification, yielding up to 10^9 copies in 30-60 minutes without denaturation steps. LAMP is widely used for pathogen detection and genetic diagnostics due to its robustness against inhibitors and visual detection via turbidity or color change with dyes like SYBR Green.^[41] Other isothermal techniques include nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), which targets RNA via reverse transcription and transcription-mediated amplification using T7 RNA polymerase, producing 10^9-10^12 RNA copies isothermally at 41°C, ideal for viral RNA quantification. Strand displacement amplification (SDA) combines restriction enzyme nicking and strand displacement for DNA amplification at 37-50°C. These methods complement PCR by offering speed and portability, though they may require more complex primer design; as of 2025, LAMP remains prominent in global health applications.^[42]

Detection and Applications

Detection Techniques

Gene amplification events, which involve increases in the copy number of specific DNA segments, can be detected and quantified using a variety of laboratory techniques that assess DNA copy number variations (CNVs) or structural alterations. These methods range from targeted molecular assays to genome-wide approaches, enabling researchers to identify amplifications in contexts such as cancer genomics and genetic research.^[43] Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) is a widely used molecular method for detecting and quantifying gene copy number changes, including amplifications, by measuring the amplification of target DNA relative to a reference gene. Real-time qPCR serves as an efficient alternative to older techniques for identifying duplications or amplifications, offering high sensitivity to detect approximately 2- to 3-fold increases in copy number.^[44]^[45] Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) provides a genome-wide screening tool for copy number alterations, including amplifications, by hybridizing labeled test and reference DNA samples to a microarray of probes, allowing simultaneous detection of gains or losses across thousands of genomic loci. This technique is particularly valuable for identifying amplified regions in clinical samples, such as those from tumors.^[46]^[43] Next-generation sequencing (NGS) enables precise mapping of amplicons and structural variants associated with gene amplification, such as double minutes (DMs), which are extrachromosomal circular DNA elements harboring amplified genes. NGS-based approaches, including read-depth analysis and breakpoint detection, reconstruct complex amplicon structures and resolve DMs that may be missed by array methods, providing high-resolution insights into amplification mechanisms.^[47]^[48] Droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) offers absolute quantification of DNA copy numbers without relying on standard curves, partitioning samples into thousands of droplets for precise measurement of amplification levels, and is especially sensitive for low-abundance targets or small copy number differences beyond the limits of qPCR.^[49]^[50] Historically, Southern blotting was a foundational technique for estimating gene copy numbers by digesting genomic DNA with restriction enzymes, separating fragments by electrophoresis, and hybridizing with specific probes to visualize band intensities indicative of amplification. Although effective for early studies of copy number changes, such as in cancer cells, Southern blotting has largely been supplanted by faster, more sensitive methods like qPCR and NGS due to its labor-intensive nature and lower throughput.^[51]^[52] These detection techniques play a key role in cancer diagnostics by identifying amplified oncogenes that drive tumor progression.^[43]

Research and Therapeutic Uses

Gene amplification plays a crucial role in research aimed at understanding gene dosage effects, where increased copy numbers directly influence gene expression and biological processes. Studies have shown that copy number alterations deregulate only a subset of genes, with approximately 5.3% of altered genes exhibiting dosage-driven changes genome-wide, though this rate doubles in regions of full duplication like chromosome 3q.^[53] In cancer contexts, high-level amplifications impact up to 44% of affected genes' expression patterns, highlighting dosage sensitivity despite compensatory mechanisms.^[54] These findings underscore amplification's role in evolutionary adaptation and pathology, enabling organisms to respond to environmental stresses through selectable dosage increases.^[55] In synthetic biology, gene amplification facilitates the design of adaptive circuits for enhanced cellular responses. A 2023 study engineered mammalian cells with chromosomally integrated synthetic circuits that amplify Puromycin resistance genes, allowing cells to evolve resistance and tune expression levels dynamically.^[56] This approach demonstrates amplification's utility in overcoming limitations like chemoresistance, providing a framework for programmable DNA networks in therapeutic engineering.^[57] In diagnostics, gene amplification detection guides personalized treatment, particularly for oncogene-driven cancers. For HER2 amplification in breast cancer, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) assess copy number and protein overexpression, respectively, to identify patients eligible for trastuzumab therapy.^[58] High concordance between IHC and FISH results correlates with improved clinical responses to trastuzumab, with HER2-positive status predicting better outcomes in advanced cases.^[59] These tests are essential for selecting approximately 15-20% of breast cancer patients who benefit from targeted HER2 inhibitors.^[60] Therapeutically, strategies target amplified oncogenes to disrupt tumor progression and counteract resistance. Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors, such as CDK4/6 blockers, show enhanced efficacy in neuroblastomas with MYCN amplification and wild-type RB1, where RB1's regulatory role becomes dispensable, promoting cell cycle arrest.^[61] This genetic interaction rationalizes CDK inhibitor use in amplification-driven malignancies.^[62] CRISPR-based editing suppresses amplification-associated resistance by targeting amplified regions; for instance, CRISPR-Cas9 nickases induce lethal double-strand breaks in amplified genome segments, selectively eliminating resistant cancer cells.^[63] Such approaches restore drug sensitivity in cancers with oncogene amplifications like MYC.^[64] Emerging applications leverage amplification for advanced gene therapy and analysis. Whole-genome amplification enables single-cell genomic profiling, revealing de novo mutations and early cancer evolution with minimal bias, supporting applications in tumor heterogeneity studies.^[65] These techniques enhance resolution in low-input samples, facilitating precise therapeutic insights.^[66]

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Genome-wide, only 5.3% of CN-altered genes were deregulated directly by gene dosage. In contrast, the rate in fully duplicated 3q was twice as high.
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medical implications of genetic duplication and amplification in ...
Gene amplification allows organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions. This type of increased gene dosage confers selectable benefits, ...
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Nov 29, 2023 · We found DNA amplification as the most common cause of drug resistance. A nucleotide treatment combined with the original drug efficiently suppressed the ...Missing: review | Show results with:review
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Adaptive DNA amplification of synthetic gene circuit opens a way to ...
We investigated a set of engineered mammalian cell lines with synthetic gene circuits integrated into their genome that evolved resistance to Puromycin.
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Immunohistochemistry and alternative FISH testing in breast cancer ...
HER2 amplification testing is performed either using immunohistochemical analysis (IHC), which tests for protein expression, or fluorescence in situ ...
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HER2 determination by IHC and FISH correlates with clinical response data in the WO16229 trial with high concordance of IHC and FISH results.
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MYCN Amplification, along with Wild-Type RB1 Expression ... - MDPI
Mar 12, 2023 · Our findings show that RB becomes dispensable in regulating the cell cycle of NB cells when MYCN is amplified. The described genetic interaction ...
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MYCN Amplification, along with Wild-Type RB1 Expression ...
Mar 12, 2023 · The described genetic interaction between MYCN and RB1 provides the rationale for using cyclin/CDK complexes inhibitors in NBs carrying MYCN ...
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Jun 2, 2025 · Our analysis demonstrates that CRISPR-Cas9 nickase can generate a lethal number of highly toxic, replication-dependent double-strand breaks in ...
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We also discuss several major applications of single-cell genomics, including studies of whole-genome de novo mutation rates, the early evolution of cancer ...
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Recent advances and application of whole genome amplification in ...
This paper reviews WGA methods based on different principles, summarizes both amplification principle and amplification quality, and discusses the application ...<|control11|><|separator|>