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Variants of PCR

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a fundamental molecular biology technique invented by Kary Mullis in 1983 that enables the exponential amplification of specific DNA sequences through repeated cycles of denaturation, annealing, and extension using a thermostable DNA polymerase, such as Taq polymerase derived from Thermus aquaticus.^[1] Variants of PCR represent specialized adaptations of this core method, designed to overcome limitations of the original protocol—such as sensitivity to contamination, inability to quantify products in real time, or challenges with RNA templates—and to expand its utility across diverse applications including diagnostics, forensics, and genomics.^[1] These modifications incorporate innovations like fluorescent probes, multiple primer sets, or sample partitioning to improve specificity, enable multiplexing, or provide absolute quantification without reliance on standard curves.^[1] Among the most notable variants is real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), which integrates fluorescence detection during amplification to monitor reaction progress in real time, allowing for precise quantification of DNA or RNA targets and serving as the gold standard for applications like viral load assessment in infectious disease diagnostics, such as SARS-CoV-2 detection.^[1] Reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) extends the technique to RNA by first converting it to complementary DNA (cDNA) via reverse transcriptase, facilitating gene expression analysis and RNA virus identification, with widespread use in clinical settings for rapid pathogen detection.^[1] Multiplex PCR amplifies multiple DNA targets simultaneously in a single reaction using distinct primer pairs, enhancing efficiency for tasks like forensic DNA profiling or simultaneous screening of genetic mutations in hereditary diseases.^[1] Further advancements include digital PCR (dPCR), which partitions the sample into thousands or millions of microreactions—via droplets (ddPCR) or chips (cdPCR)—to achieve absolute quantification by counting positive partitions, offering superior precision for rare mutation detection and copy number variation analysis in cancer research.^[1] Nested PCR employs two sequential amplification rounds with inner and outer primer sets to boost specificity and reduce non-specific products, particularly useful in low-abundance template scenarios like ancient DNA studies.^[2] Techniques such as hot-start PCR, which activates the polymerase only at high temperatures to minimize primer-dimer formation, and touchdown PCR, which progressively lowers annealing temperatures for optimized specificity, address common artifacts in standard PCR.^[2] Emerging isothermal variants, like loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), eliminate thermal cycling altogether for point-of-care testing in resource-limited environments.^[1] Collectively, these variants have transformed PCR into a versatile toolkit, underpinning next-generation sequencing library preparation and single-cell analyses while driving innovations in portable, microfluidic devices for on-site diagnostics.^[1]

Cycle and Protocol Modifications

Hot-start PCR

Hot-start PCR is a modification of the standard polymerase chain reaction (PCR) designed to minimize non-specific amplification by inhibiting DNA polymerase activity at ambient temperatures during reaction setup, thereby preventing primer-dimer formation and mispriming.^[3] This technique ensures that polymerase activation occurs only after the initial high-temperature denaturation step, typically at 95°C, enhancing the specificity and yield of the target amplicon.^[4] By addressing the intrinsic activity of Taq DNA polymerase at room temperature, hot-start PCR has become essential for applications requiring high precision.^[5] The technique was introduced in the late 1980s to overcome limitations in early PCR protocols, where non-specific products compromised results, particularly in diagnostic and cloning assays.^[3] Early implementations focused on manual addition of polymerase post-denaturation, but automated methods emerged in the 1990s, including the use of inhibitory agents that are released upon heating.^[6] These developments were driven by the need to improve reproducibility in high-throughput settings, with commercial hot-start enzymes like AmpliTaq Gold becoming widely adopted by the early 2000s.^[5] Activation methods for hot-start PCR fall into three main categories: chemical, enzymatic, and physical. Chemical inhibition involves modifying the polymerase with thermolabile groups, such as in FastStart Taq DNA Polymerase, where blocking groups are removed during a 2-minute incubation at 95°C to activate the enzyme.^[4] Enzymatic methods use reversible inhibitors like antibodies or aptamers; for example, JumpStart Taq employs antibodies that dissociate at 70°C, while AptaTaq uses DNA aptamers that release above 70°C for faster activation.^[4]^[7] Physical methods rely on barriers to separate components until melting at high temperatures, such as wax beads that form a seal between polymerase and primers/dNTPs, or dried trehalose-embedded beads for small-volume reactions.^[6]^[8] These approaches allow room-temperature assembly while ensuring inactivation until the activation step, typically 2-10 minutes at 95°C depending on the method.^[4] In routine diagnostics and high-throughput screening, hot-start PCR is particularly valuable for amplifying low-abundance targets in complex samples, such as viral detection or genotyping, where specificity is paramount.^[3] It is often combined with nested PCR for enhanced multi-step specificity in challenging templates. The primary advantages include a significant reduction in background noise from non-specific products—often by orders of magnitude—leading to cleaner gels and higher target yields, alongside improved sensitivity in quantitative assays.^[5]^[4]

Touchdown PCR

Touchdown PCR is a modification of the standard polymerase chain reaction (PCR) designed to improve the specificity of amplification by progressively lowering the annealing temperature during the initial cycles, thereby minimizing non-specific priming while maximizing the yield of the target product.^[9] This technique was developed in 1991 by R.H. Don and colleagues at the University of Queensland to address challenges in amplifying specific genes from complex genomic templates, where spurious products often outcompete the desired amplicon due to their smaller size and faster replication kinetics.^[10] The protocol for touchdown PCR typically begins with an initial denaturation step, followed by 5–10 cycles where the annealing temperature is set 5–10°C above the calculated melting temperature (Tm) of the primers. In these early cycles, the temperature is decreased by 0.5–1°C per cycle (or every second cycle in some variants) until it reaches the standard Tm or 2–5°C below it, after which 20–30 additional cycles are performed at this final annealing temperature, with denaturation at 94–95°C and extension at 72°C. This stepwise reduction ensures that specific primers, which have a higher Tm, anneal preferentially during the high-temperature phase, while non-specific primers with lower Tm are less likely to bind.^[11] The mechanism relies on the exponential nature of PCR amplification: in the initial high-stringency cycles, correct primer-template hybrids are favored, providing them with a kinetic advantage of approximately 2-fold per cycle (or 4-fold per °C difference in Tm) over mismatched annealings, which suppresses off-target products before they can accumulate.^[10] As the temperature "touches down" to optimal levels, amplification of the specific product proceeds efficiently without significant interference from non-specific bands.^[12] Touchdown PCR is particularly useful for amplifying low-abundance targets in genomic DNA from complex samples, such as in pathogen detection where it enables sensitive identification of bacterial or protozoan DNA in environmental or clinical matrices.^[13] It has also been applied in ecological studies, including environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis for tracking microbial or wildlife populations in aquatic and soil ecosystems.^[14] For maximal specificity, touchdown PCR is often combined with hot-start PCR techniques to further prevent primer-dimer formation.^[15] Optimization of touchdown PCR involves adjusting the total temperature decrease to 10–20°C over the initial cycles, with the number of touchdown cycles (typically 10–15) tailored to template complexity—more cycles for highly complex or low-input DNA to build specificity early.^[16] This approach reduces the need for empirical testing of fixed annealing temperatures and enhances reproducibility across different thermal cyclers.^[10]

Nested PCR

Nested PCR is a modification of the standard polymerase chain reaction (PCR) designed to improve both specificity and sensitivity, particularly for amplifying rare or low-abundance target sequences in complex samples. The technique involves two sequential amplification steps: in the first round, a pair of outer primers is used to generate an intermediate-length product from the target DNA template over 15–30 cycles. An aliquot of this product (typically 1–10% of the reaction volume) then serves as the template for the second round, where a pair of inner primers—located internally within the outer primer binding sites—amplifies a shorter, more specific fragment over an additional 25–35 cycles. This nested approach reduces non-specific amplification by minimizing the chances of primer mispriming in the initial broad amplification, as the inner primers only bind to the correctly amplified intermediate product. The method was first introduced in 1988 by Saiki et al. for detecting human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in clinical samples, marking an early advancement in PCR-based viral diagnostics. By combining the thermostable Taq polymerase with this two-step primer strategy, nested PCR achieves a sensitivity gain of up to 10^4-fold compared to conventional assays like slot-blot hybridization, enabling reliable detection of as few as 1–10 target template molecules in a background of excess non-target DNA. One study demonstrated this enhanced detection for hepatitis B virus serum DNA, where nested PCR identified positives in samples negative by standard methods, underscoring its utility for low-copy viral targets.^[17]^[18] A primary challenge with nested PCR is the risk of carryover contamination, where amplicons from the first round aerosolize and template false positives in the second round or subsequent reactions. This is mitigated by incorporating deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) in place of dTTP during amplification, followed by treatment with uracil-DNA glycosylase (UDG) to selectively degrade uracil-containing contaminant DNA prior to the second round, while preserving the native template. Nested PCR finds key applications in forensics, where it amplifies trace DNA from mixed or degraded evidence like touch DNA on surfaces, and in ancient DNA analysis, allowing recovery of genetic material from millennia-old samples with minimal starting material. Variations include fully nested PCR, which employs entirely new inner primers for maximum specificity, and semi-nested PCR, which shares one primer from the outer set with a new internal primer to streamline the process while retaining much of the sensitivity benefit. In quantification contexts, techniques like digital PCR can sometimes obviate the need for nested amplification by partitioning samples into thousands of reactions for absolute counting of rare targets.

Asymmetric PCR

Asymmetric PCR is a modification of the standard polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that employs unequal concentrations of the two primers to preferentially amplify one strand of the target DNA, resulting in the production of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) alongside double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). This technique was first described in 1988 by Gyllensten and Erlich as a method to generate ssDNA suitable for direct sequencing of PCR products, eliminating the need for cloning steps. The process involves an initial exponential amplification phase where both primers are utilized to produce dsDNA, followed by a linear amplification phase after depletion of the limiting primer, during which the excess primer extends the ssDNA template repeatedly.^[19] In the protocol, primers are typically added in a ratio of 50:1 to 100:1 (limiting primer to excess primer), allowing the reaction to shift from balanced dsDNA synthesis to unbalanced ssDNA production.^[20] For example, the excess primer is often used at concentrations of 20-50 nM, while the limiting primer is at 0.2-1 nM, though adjustments may be needed based on template and amplicon length.^[20] The reaction proceeds through standard thermal cycling (denaturation, annealing, extension) for 30-50 cycles, with the linear phase yielding 10-100 times more ssDNA than dsDNA under optimized conditions.^[19] Post-PCR cleanup, such as exonuclease treatment or gel purification, is commonly required to isolate the desired ssDNA by removing excess primers and dsDNA contaminants.^[21] This variant finds applications in generating ssDNA probes for hybridization assays, where the single-stranded nature enhances binding efficiency to target sequences in microarrays or northern blots.^[21] It is also employed in direct sequencing of PCR amplicons without subcloning, as the enriched ssDNA serves as an ideal template for Sanger sequencing. Additionally, asymmetric PCR supports probe-based detection in diagnostic assays, leveraging the ssDNA for improved specificity in hybridization reactions.^[22] Optimization of asymmetric PCR focuses on primer ratio and concentration to maximize ssDNA yield while minimizing non-specific products, often requiring empirical testing for each target.^[20] However, the method generally produces lower overall nucleic acid yields compared to symmetric PCR due to the transition to linear amplification, and imbalances can introduce artifacts such as primer-dimers or off-target amplification.^[19]

Quantitative and Detection Variants

Real-time PCR (qPCR)

Real-time PCR, also known as quantitative PCR (qPCR), enables the monitoring and quantification of DNA amplification in real time by incorporating fluorescent detection directly into the PCR cycles, eliminating the need for post-amplification analysis such as gel electrophoresis.^[23] This technique was first developed in 1993 by Higuchi et al., who demonstrated the use of ethidium bromide fluorescence to track PCR product accumulation via video imaging during thermal cycling.^[24] By measuring fluorescence at each cycle, qPCR provides kinetic data on amplification, allowing for precise determination of initial template quantities based on the exponential phase of the reaction.^[23] Detection in qPCR relies on two primary methods: intercalating dyes and sequence-specific probes. Intercalating dyes, such as SYBR Green I, bind nonspecifically to double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) produced during amplification, resulting in increased fluorescence proportional to amplicon accumulation; this approach is cost-effective but can detect nonspecific products, necessitating melt curve analysis for specificity.^[25] In contrast, probe-based methods like TaqMan utilize fluorogenic hydrolysis probes labeled with a reporter fluorophore at the 5' end and a quencher at the 3' end; during extension, the 5' nuclease activity of Taq polymerase cleaves the probe, separating the reporter from the quencher and generating a detectable signal specific to the target sequence.^[26] This probe hydrolysis mechanism, originally described by Holland et al. in 1991, enhances specificity and enables multiplexing through probes with distinct fluorophores.^[26] Quantification in qPCR is achieved through the cycle threshold (Ct) value, defined as the PCR cycle number at which the fluorescence signal crosses a predetermined threshold above background noise, reflecting the point of exponential amplification.^[27] For absolute quantification, a standard curve is generated by plotting Ct values against known template concentrations, from which amplification efficiency (E) is calculated using the formula E = 10^{-1/\text{slope}}; optimal efficiencies range from 90% to 110%, corresponding to slopes of -3.58 to -3.10.^[28] Relative quantification, commonly used for gene expression analysis, employs the ΔΔCt method, which compares the difference in Ct values (ΔCt) between target and reference genes across samples, normalized to a calibrator; this approach assumes similar efficiencies between targets.^[29] Expression levels are often normalized to housekeeping genes such as GAPDH to account for variations in input RNA or DNA.^[29] qPCR finds widespread applications in gene expression profiling, where it quantifies mRNA levels by first performing reverse transcription to generate cDNA (RT-qPCR); viral load monitoring in clinical diagnostics, such as HIV or SARS-CoV-2 quantification; and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping through allele-specific probes.^[30] These uses leverage qPCR's high sensitivity, detecting as few as 10 copies of target nucleic acid, and its dynamic range spanning five to six orders of magnitude.^[30] Instruments for qPCR consist of modified thermocyclers integrated with optical systems for real-time fluorescence detection, typically supporting 4-5 color channels for multiplexing up to 2-5 targets simultaneously, limited by spectral overlap and probe design complexity. Advanced systems, such as those from Applied Biosystems, incorporate multiple excitation sources and detectors to minimize crosstalk in multiplex reactions.

Digital PCR

Digital PCR (dPCR) is a method for absolute nucleic acid quantification that partitions a sample into thousands to millions of individual microreactions, each containing zero or few target molecules, enabling direct counting of positive partitions after endpoint amplification. This approach relies on Poisson statistics to estimate target concentration without requiring standard curves or amplification efficiency assumptions, distinguishing it from relative quantification methods like qPCR. The technique was first conceptualized in the early 1990s through pioneering work on limiting dilution and digital imaging for target quantitation.^[31] In droplet digital PCR (ddPCR), the most widely adopted format, the sample is emulsified into 10,000 to 100,000 oil-encapsulated aqueous droplets, with each droplet serving as an independent PCR reaction volume of approximately 1 nanoliter. After thermal cycling, droplets are analyzed for fluorescence to classify them as positive (containing amplified target) or negative, using a droplet reader that employs flow cytometry principles to stream and detect individual droplets at high throughput. The average number of target molecules per partition, denoted as λ, is calculated via the Poisson formula:

\lambda = -\ln(1 - p)

where p represents the fraction of positive droplets. The total target copy number is then determined as λ multiplied by the total number of partitions and adjusted for any dilution factor, providing precise absolute quantification with high reproducibility. This method was commercialized in 2011 by Bio-Rad Laboratories following their acquisition of QuantaLife, building on foundational ddPCR demonstrations.^[32] dPCR excels in applications requiring high sensitivity, such as detecting copy number variations (CNVs) in genomic DNA, where it can resolve differences as small as 10% without reference standards, and rare mutation detection in heterogeneous samples like circulating tumor DNA, achieving sensitivities down to 0.01% variant allele frequency. Its advantages include robust performance in the presence of PCR inhibitors—such as humic acids or heme from clinical samples—due to the isolation of reactions in partitions, which minimizes global inhibition effects, and reliance on endpoint readouts rather than real-time kinetics, eliminating biases from variable amplification efficiencies. Unlike qPCR, dPCR does not assume perfect doubling per cycle, yielding more accurate results for low-abundance targets.^[33]^[34]^[35] Variations of dPCR include droplet-based systems like Bio-Rad's QX200, which generate flexible emulsion partitions, and chamber-based platforms such as Thermo Fisher's QuantStudio 3D, which use preloaded microfluidic chips to form fixed arrays of up to 20,000 wells for more consistent partition volumes and simplified workflows. Both formats leverage Poisson-based analysis but differ in throughput and ease of use, with droplet methods offering higher partition numbers for enhanced precision in ultra-low target detection.^[36]

COLD-PCR

COLD-PCR, or co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature PCR, is a modification of standard PCR designed to selectively enrich low-abundance mutant DNA alleles from a background of wild-type DNA. The method exploits the principle that heteroduplexes formed between wild-type and mutant strands have a lower melting temperature (T_m) due to sequence mismatches, allowing for preferential denaturation of these heteroduplexes at a critical temperature (T_c) that is typically 1-2°C below the full T_m of the amplicon. This enables the polymerase to preferentially amplify single-stranded mutant templates while reannealing wild-type strands, resulting in exponential enrichment of variants without requiring specialized primers or enzymes.^[37]^[38] The protocol for COLD-PCR involves an initial phase of conventional PCR cycles (usually 5-10) at full denaturation temperature (e.g., 94-95°C) to generate amplicons, followed by alternating full and partial denaturation cycles at T_c (e.g., 80-85°C, optimized computationally or empirically for each sequence). Annealing and extension steps occur at standard temperatures (50-60°C and 72°C, respectively), with cycle numbers tailored to achieve desired enrichment (typically 20-40 cycles total). This approach can yield up to 100-fold enrichment of mutant alleles, enabling detection of variants at frequencies as low as 0.1-1% in heterogeneous samples. T_c selection is crucial, as it must dissociate mutant-containing heteroduplexes while preserving perfect-match wild-type duplexes.^[37]^[39] Developed in 2008 by Li et al. as a tool to enhance mutation detection sensitivity in clinical settings, COLD-PCR has been particularly applied in cancer diagnostics for identifying somatic mutations in genes like KRAS from tumor biopsies or circulating DNA. For instance, in colorectal and other solid tumors, it has improved KRAS mutation detection in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples by over 4-fold compared to conventional PCR, facilitating personalized therapy decisions such as anti-EGFR treatment eligibility. The technique's specificity stems from its reliance on sequence-specific mismatches rather than probe hybridization, making it broadly applicable to point mutations, insertions, deletions, and methylation events; it is often combined with downstream sequencing (e.g., Sanger or next-generation) for validation.^[37]^[39] Several variants of COLD-PCR address limitations in mutation type specificity and efficiency. Fast-COLD-PCR employs a simplified three-step cycling (denaturation at T_c, annealing/extension) without a separate hybridization step, using rapid cooling (e.g., via ice bath) to promote heteroduplex formation; it is optimized for Tm-reducing mutations and achieves ~20-fold enrichment but is faster and suitable for high-throughput assays. Ice-COLD-PCR, introduced in 2011 by Milbury et al., incorporates a non-extendable wild-type reference sequence added post-initial amplification to force heteroduplex formation with mutants, enabling robust enrichment (up to 75-fold) for all mutation types, including Tm-neutral or Tm-increasing ones, through enhanced strand displacement during the T_c step. These variants maintain compatibility with standard thermal cyclers and have expanded COLD-PCR's utility in detecting rare alleles in liquid biopsies.^[40]^[38]

RNA and Pretreatment Variants

Reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR)

Reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique that enables the amplification and analysis of RNA molecules by first synthesizing complementary DNA (cDNA) from RNA templates using reverse transcriptase, followed by PCR amplification of the cDNA. This variant addresses the limitation of standard PCR, which amplifies only DNA, making RT-PCR essential for studying RNA viruses, gene expression, and transcriptomics. The method was first described in 1987 by Kawasaki et al., building on the earlier invention of PCR in 1983 and reverse transcriptase in 1970.^[41]^[42] The procedure begins with reverse transcription, where an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, such as Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-MLV) reverse transcriptase, synthesizes cDNA from the RNA template. M-MLV RT typically includes RNase H activity, which cleaves the RNA strand in the RNA-DNA hybrid after cDNA synthesis, facilitating processivity. Primers for this step include oligo(dT) primers that bind to the poly-A tail of mRNA, random hexamers for unbiased synthesis from total RNA, or gene-specific primers for targeted amplification. The reaction is optimized at 42–50°C incubation to reduce RNA secondary structures that could impede synthesis, with durations of 30–60 minutes depending on template length. RT-PCR protocols are categorized as one-step, where reverse transcription and PCR occur in a single tube using a thermostable reverse transcriptase like Tth polymerase to minimize handling and contamination, or two-step, where cDNA is synthesized separately and then aliquoted for multiple PCR reactions, offering greater flexibility for downstream applications.^[43]^[44]^[45] RT-PCR finds widespread use in gene expression profiling to quantify mRNA abundance across tissues or conditions, and in viral RNA detection, notably for pathogens like SARS-CoV-2 where it serves as the gold standard for diagnostic testing by targeting viral genes such as the nucleocapsid or spike protein. For quantitative applications, RT-qPCR integrates real-time fluorescence detection during PCR to measure mRNA levels accurately, achieving sensitivity down to 10–100 RNA molecules per reaction, which is critical for low-abundance transcripts. A primary challenge is RNA degradation by environmental RNases, mitigated by incorporating inhibitors like RNasin, a recombinant ribonuclease inhibitor that binds and neutralizes RNases without interfering with the enzymatic reactions. Proper handling, including RNase-free reagents and conditions, ensures reliable results.^[46]^[47]^[48]

Methylation-specific PCR

Methylation-specific PCR (MSP) is a technique designed to detect and distinguish between methylated and unmethylated cytosine residues in CpG dinucleotides, particularly within CpG islands of gene promoters. The method relies on sodium bisulfite treatment of genomic DNA, which deaminates unmethylated cytosines to uracils (that are read as thymines during PCR), while 5-methylcytosines remain unchanged. Following treatment, PCR amplification uses primers that are sequence-specific: those targeting unmethylated alleles incorporate thymines at former cytosine positions, whereas primers for methylated alleles match the original guanine-cytosine pairing. This allows qualitative assessment of methylation status at specific loci using standard PCR conditions, typically involving 35 cycles of denaturation at 95°C, annealing, and extension at 72°C, followed by gel electrophoresis.^[49] Developed in 1996 by Herman et al., MSP has become a cornerstone in epigenetics research, enabling the analysis of DNA methylation patterns associated with gene silencing. It requires minimal DNA input (as low as 50 ng) and is applicable to archived samples like paraffin-embedded tissues. In cancer biomarker detection, MSP has identified promoter hypermethylation in tumor suppressor genes, such as the MGMT gene in glioblastoma, where methylated promoters predict improved survival with temozolomide chemotherapy (median survival 21.7 months versus 15.3 months without methylation). For instance, in a cohort of 206 glioblastoma patients, 45% showed MGMT promoter methylation via MSP, correlating with therapeutic response. The technique's sensitivity detects as little as 0.1% methylated alleles in a background of unmethylated DNA, making it suitable for heterogeneous tumor samples.^[50]^[49] Despite its advantages, MSP faces limitations including incomplete bisulfite conversion, which can lead to false positives by leaving unmethylated cytosines undetected, and DNA degradation during the 16-hour treatment, potentially reducing yield by over 75%. These issues are mitigated by optimized protocols using commercial kits with shorter incubation times. For quantitative analysis, methylation-specific quantitative PCR (MS-qPCR), also known as MethyLight, incorporates real-time fluorescence detection with TaqMan probes to measure methylation ratios accurately across a dynamic range. A variant, HeavyMethyl PCR, enhances specificity for heavily methylated regions by using methylation-specific blockers to suppress unmethylated amplification, combined with probes for real-time quantification; it is particularly useful in clinical settings for low-input samples. Validation of MSP results often involves pyrosequencing, which provides semi-quantitative confirmation of methylation levels at individual CpG sites.^[49]^[51]^[52]

Ligation-mediated PCR

Ligation-mediated PCR (LM-PCR) is a technique that enables the amplification of unknown DNA sequences adjacent to a known region by ligating universal linkers or adapters to the ends of fragmented genomic DNA, allowing subsequent PCR amplification using one gene-specific primer and one linker-specific primer. This method is particularly useful for genome walking, where it facilitates the step-wise extension into flanking regions without prior knowledge of the sequence.^[53] The procedure involves first digesting genomic DNA with a restriction enzyme to generate fragments with blunt or compatible ends, followed by blunt-end ligation of a universal linker using T4 DNA ligase to create a common priming site on the unknown ends.^[54] Subsequent PCR amplification employs a gene-specific primer targeting the known sequence and a primer annealing to the ligated linker, often in a nested format to enhance specificity and suppress non-specific products by requiring two rounds of amplification with internal primers. High-quality ligation is essential, typically achieved with T4 DNA ligase under optimized conditions to ensure efficient adapter attachment and minimize chimeric products.^[55] Developed in 1989 by Paul R. Mueller and Barbara Wold for in vivo footprinting and genomic sequencing, LM-PCR has been adapted for applications such as transposon tagging, where it identifies insertion sites by amplifying flanking genomic sequences post-transposon mutagenesis.^[56] It is also widely employed in mapping viral integration sites, particularly for retroviral vectors in gene therapy, by selectively amplifying junctions between viral and host DNA.^[57] A notable variation is multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA), introduced in 2002, which uses pairs of probes that ligate only upon hybridization to target sequences for quantitative detection of copy number variations across multiple loci in a single reaction.^[58] MLPA suppresses non-specific amplification through probe design and nested linker strategies, enabling reliable quantification without gel electrophoresis.^[58] In terms of efficiency, LM-PCR typically allows genome walking of 50-500 base pairs per reaction, depending on fragment size and primer design, making it suitable for targeted extension but often requiring iterative rounds for longer distances.^[53] Modern implementations frequently integrate LM-PCR with next-generation sequencing (NGS) for high-throughput analysis, such as parallel mapping of thousands of integration sites in viral studies.^[59] Unlike inverse PCR, which relies on circularization of templates for outward priming from known sequences, LM-PCR uses linear linker ligation for open-ended exploration of adjacent regions.^[55]

Primer and Specificity Modifications

Allele-specific PCR

Allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR), also referred to as the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS), is a PCR variant that enables the selective amplification of specific alleles or genetic polymorphisms through the use of primers designed to anneal exclusively to the target sequence. This technique exploits the inability of DNA polymerases to efficiently extend primers with a mismatch at the 3' terminus, particularly when the polymorphism, such as a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), is positioned at the primer's 3' end. For the non-target allele, this mismatch destabilizes primer binding and inhibits extension, while perfect matching on the target allele allows robust amplification.^[60]^[61]^[62] To further enhance discrimination, ARMS incorporates one or more deliberate mismatches in the penultimate or antepenultimate positions from the 3' end of the primer, which amplifies the destabilizing effect of the terminal mismatch and reduces non-specific amplification. Developed in 1989 by Newton et al., AS-PCR has been widely adopted for direct genotyping without the need for hybridization probes. Its applications span pharmacogenomics, where it identifies variants like CYP2C19*4 influencing drug metabolism and response to therapies such as clopidogrel, and disease association studies, including HLA typing for assessing transplant compatibility and autoimmune risk.^[60]00138-4/fulltext)^[63] Optimization of AS-PCR conditions is crucial for achieving high specificity and sensitivity. Adjusting Mg²⁺ concentrations, typically in the range of 1.5–2.5 mM, balances primer annealing stability and polymerase activity to favor target-specific extension while suppressing mismatches. Touchdown annealing protocols, which start with higher temperatures (e.g., 5–10°C above the primer melting temperature) and gradually decrease them over initial cycles, further improve specificity by promoting selective primer binding early in the reaction. With these optimizations, AS-PCR can reliably detect target alleles at frequencies as low as 1% in heterogeneous samples, making it suitable for identifying minor variants in clinical settings.^[64]^[65]^[66] Multiplexing in AS-PCR facilitates the simultaneous genotyping of multiple alleles in a single reaction, with protocols supporting up to 10 alleles through meticulous primer design to ensure distinct annealing temperatures, minimal dimer formation, and appropriate product sizes for resolution on agarose gels. This approach requires careful spacing of primers to avoid cross-interference and can integrate with broader multiplex PCR strategies for comprehensive polymorphism screening. Validation of AS-PCR results is commonly performed via Sanger sequencing to confirm allele identity or restriction digest analysis to verify specific amplicon patterns, ensuring accuracy in downstream applications.^[67]^[68]^[69]

Multiplex PCR

Multiplex PCR is a variant of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that enables the simultaneous amplification of multiple specific DNA target sequences in a single reaction tube using several pairs of primers.^[70] This approach increases throughput and reduces time and reagent costs compared to performing separate reactions for each target, making it valuable for applications requiring parallel analysis of genetic markers.^[71] The technique was first developed in 1988 by Chamberlain et al. for screening deletions in the Duchenne muscular dystrophy locus, where multiple exons were amplified concurrently to detect genetic abnormalities. In designing multiplex PCR assays, typically 3 to 20 primer pairs are selected to target non-overlapping amplicons, each ranging from 100 to 500 base pairs in length, ensuring resolvability by downstream methods such as gel electrophoresis.^[72] Primers are optimized for uniform annealing temperatures, generally around 55–60°C, to promote balanced amplification across all targets and minimize bias.^[72] Key applications include diagnostics, such as multiplex panels for detecting sexually transmitted infections like Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and forensics, where short tandem repeat (STR) profiling amplifies multiple loci for human identification.^[73] Challenges in multiplex PCR arise primarily from inter-primer interactions and competition for reagents, which can lead to preferential amplification of certain targets and reduced specificity.^[74] These issues are often addressed by adjusting primer concentrations to equalize yields and employing touchdown PCR protocols, which start with higher annealing temperatures and gradually decrease them to enhance specificity.^[75] Modern commercial kits support high-plex reactions, up to 96 targets or more, through advanced primer design algorithms that mitigate dimer formation and off-target amplification.^[71] Detection of multiplex PCR products typically occurs post-amplification via agarose gel electrophoresis for size separation, capillary electrophoresis for high-resolution STR analysis, or integration with quantitative real-time PCR for simultaneous amplification and monitoring.^[73]^[72] However, limitations include overall reduced yield per target due to resource competition and heightened sensitivity to PCR inhibitors, such as heme or humic acids, which can disproportionately affect multi-target reactions compared to simplex PCR.^[76]^[77]

Inverse PCR

Inverse PCR (IPCR) is a variant of the polymerase chain reaction designed to amplify unknown DNA sequences flanking a region of known sequence, such as insertion sites or junctions. The method involves digesting genomic DNA with a restriction enzyme to generate fragments containing the known sequence, followed by self-ligation to circularize the DNA, and subsequent PCR amplification using primers oriented outward from the known region toward the unknown flanks. This approach allows symmetric amplification of sequences on both sides of the target, enabling the identification of insertions, deletions, or integrations without prior knowledge of the flanking regions. Developed by Howard Ochman and colleagues in 1988, IPCR was first demonstrated by amplifying sequences flanking an IS1 transposable element in Escherichia coli. The protocol begins with a restriction digest using an enzyme that cuts outside the known sequence, ideally producing fragments of 1-5 kb to facilitate efficient circularization and amplification. The digested DNA is then ligated under dilute conditions to promote intramolecular joining, forming circular templates. PCR is performed with primers annealing to the known sequence but facing away from it, extending through the unknown regions and across the ligation junction. To enhance specificity and yield, a partial digest may be used to generate a population of fragments with varying distances from the known sequence, and nested primers can be employed in a second round of amplification.^[78]^[79] IPCR has been widely applied in molecular genetics, including transposon mapping to identify insertion sites in bacterial genomes, analysis of viral integration sites in host DNA, and characterization of gene disruptions caused by insertional mutagenesis. For instance, it has been used to map transposon insertions in bacterial chromosomes by amplifying flanking sequences for sequencing. In viral studies, IPCR facilitates the detection of integration events, such as those of retroviruses or hepatitis B virus, by revealing adjacent host sequences. Similarly, it aids in gene disruption analysis by cloning junctions of inserted elements in model organisms like Dictyostelium.^[80]^[81]^[82] Key advantages of IPCR include its ability to amplify both flanking regions simultaneously in a single reaction, providing balanced coverage that is useful for detecting symmetric insertions or deletions, and its reliance on standard PCR reagents without needing specialized enzymes. As a variation, bisulfite-treated IPCR combines the method with sodium bisulfite conversion to analyze methylation status in unknown flanking regions, such as those adjacent to integrated proviruses, by converting unmethylated cytosines to uracils prior to circularization and amplification. This adaptation is particularly valuable in epigenetics for studying methylation patterns at integration sites. Ligation-mediated PCR offers a non-circular alternative using linkers for flanking amplification.^[83]^[84]

Enzyme and Fidelity Enhancements

High-fidelity PCR

High-fidelity PCR refers to variants of the polymerase chain reaction that employ proofreading DNA polymerases to achieve significantly lower error rates during amplification, enabling the production of accurate DNA amplicons, particularly for long sequences. These polymerases possess 3'-5' exonuclease activity, which allows them to excise and correct mismatched nucleotides incorporated during synthesis, contrasting with non-proofreading enzymes like Taq that lack this capability. Developed to address the limitations of standard PCR in applications requiring precise replication, high-fidelity PCR minimizes mutations, making it essential for downstream processes where sequence integrity is paramount.^[85] The seminal high-fidelity polymerase, Pfu, was isolated from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus and introduced in 1991. Pfu exhibits an error rate of approximately 1.3 × 10^{-6} mutations per base pair per cycle, representing a 6- to 100-fold improvement in fidelity over Taq DNA polymerase, depending on the assay and conditions. This error rate can be expressed as roughly 1 mutation per 770,000 base pairs per cycle, calculated from phenotypic assays monitoring detectable mutations in amplified lacI gene sequences. Advanced variants like Phusion DNA polymerase, a fusion of a Pfu-like proofreading domain with a double-stranded DNA-binding domain (such as Sso7d), enhance processivity and extension speed while maintaining high fidelity, with error rates over 50-fold lower than Taq. To facilitate TA cloning, which requires 3' A-overhangs, Pfu or Phusion products—typically blunt-ended—are often blended with Taq polymerase or treated post-amplification to add these overhangs without substantially compromising overall fidelity.^[85]^[86]^[87] Protocols for high-fidelity PCR incorporate optimized conditions to maximize accuracy and yield, including magnesium ion concentrations of 1-2 mM to balance polymerization and proofreading efficiency, and extension times of about 1 minute per kilobase at 72°C to accommodate the slower processivity of proofreading enzymes. Additives like betaine (1-2 M) are commonly included to alleviate secondary structures in GC-rich templates, improving amplification uniformity without affecting fidelity. These methods were refined alongside Pfu's introduction, emphasizing fewer cycles (typically 25-30) to further reduce cumulative errors.^[88]^[89] High-fidelity PCR finds primary applications in cloning, where accurate inserts prevent propagation of errors; site-directed mutagenesis, enabling precise base substitutions; and next-generation sequencing (NGS) library preparation, where low mutation rates ensure reliable variant calling. For instance, in NGS workflows, the 100- to 1000-fold fidelity advantage over Taq reduces artifactual variants, critical for clinical genomics. While hot-start mechanisms can be combined for enhanced specificity, the core benefit of high-fidelity PCR lies in its proofreading activity for error minimization.^[90]^[91]

Hot-start Enzymes

Hot-start enzymes refer to modified DNA polymerases designed to remain inactive at ambient temperatures during reaction assembly, activating only upon initial heating to approximately 95°C to minimize non-specific primer annealing and extension. This approach enhances PCR specificity by preventing polymerase activity that could lead to primer dimers or off-target products before the denaturation step. Activation occurs through thermal reversal of the inhibition mechanism, restoring full enzymatic function without altering standard PCR cycling parameters.^[92] Several types of hot-start formulations exist, including antibody-blocked Taq polymerases, where monoclonal antibodies bind to the enzyme's active site, inhibiting polymerization until the antibodies denature at high temperatures; chemically modified variants, such as those with reversible alterations to amino acid residues (e.g., SureStart Taq from Agilent), which block activity via covalent linkages that cleave at 95°C; and aptamer-inhibited enzymes, utilizing single-stranded DNA or RNA aptamers that reversibly bind the polymerase, dissociating during the initial heating phase. The antibody method, introduced in a seminal 1994 study, demonstrated prevention of pre-PCR mispriming and primer dimerization, particularly beneficial for amplifying low-copy-number targets. These evolved from earlier 1990s chemical hot-start techniques and manual methods, finding key applications in multiplex PCR setups and analyses involving limited template DNA, where non-specific artifacts can otherwise dominate.^[92]^[93]^[7]^[94] In terms of performance, hot-start enzymes substantially reduce non-specific amplification—often by more than 90% in challenging reactions—while preserving complete activity post-activation and enabling higher yields of target amplicons. They are also compatible with proofreading polymerase blends, supporting hot-start variants for enhanced fidelity in applications requiring accurate replication. Compared to manual hot-start approaches, such as wax beads that physically separate reagents until melting during the first cycle, enzyme-based methods provide greater convenience through single-tube reactions, minimizing handling errors and contamination risks.^[92]^[95]^[8] Prominent commercial examples include Platinum II Taq Hot-Start DNA Polymerase from Thermo Fisher Scientific, which employs a chemical modification for robust inhibitor tolerance and universal annealing, and KAPA HiFi HotStart from Roche, utilizing antibody-mediated inhibition for high-fidelity amplification in NGS library preparation and other demanding assays.^[96]^[97]

Specialized Polymerases

Specialized polymerases in PCR refer to thermostable enzymes derived from extremophilic microorganisms, offering unique functional properties beyond the standard Taq polymerase from Thermus aquaticus. These enzymes, often isolated from thermophilic bacteria and archaea in the 1990s through environmental sampling of hot springs and geothermal sites, enable enhanced performance in challenging amplifications, such as those involving RNA templates or difficult sequence compositions.^[98]^[99] One prominent example is Tth DNA polymerase from Thermus thermophilus, which exhibits dual activity as both a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase and a reverse transcriptase, allowing RNA-dependent cDNA synthesis at elevated temperatures of 60–70°C. This intrinsic reverse transcriptase functionality requires Mn²⁺ ions and facilitates one-step RT-PCR protocols where reverse transcription and amplification occur in a single tube, reducing contamination risks and simplifying workflows for RNA detection. Tth polymerase supports amplification of RNA targets up to at least 1 kb, making it valuable for gene expression analysis and viral diagnostics. Recent engineered variants, such as I640F/I709K (2023), enable Mn²⁺-independent reverse transcriptase activity for improved flexibility.^[100]^[101]^[102] Vent DNA polymerase, sourced from the archaeon Thermococcus litoralis, provides moderate fidelity with an error rate around 10⁻⁵ mutations per base pair, coupled with exceptional thermostability that withstands temperatures exceeding 95°C. Its robust activity on GC-rich or structured templates stems from the enzyme's archaeal origins, enabling reliable PCR of complex genomic regions that challenge standard polymerases. Similarly, Deep Vent DNA polymerase from Pyrococcus sp. GB-D shares these archaeal traits, excelling in high-GC content amplifications due to its high processivity and stability in specialized buffers, often yielding products up to 6 kb with improved specificity over bacterial enzymes.^[103]^[104]^[105] KOD DNA polymerase from Thermococcus kodakaraensis KOD1 stands out for its high processivity, extending up to 100–130 nucleotides per second—several times faster than Taq—allowing ultra-long PCR of fragments exceeding 20 kb with high accuracy (error rates of 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁷). This property arises from the enzyme's optimized structure, often combined with exonuclease-deficient mutants for even longer extensions in genomic applications like cloning large inserts. Optimization for these polymerases typically involves buffer adjustments, such as Tricine-based formulations for Tth to enhance RT activity or manganese-free conditions for fidelity in Vent and KOD, ensuring maximal yield and minimal artifacts. Recent examples include the 2024 Neq2X7 fusion polymerase, capable of amplifying long and GC-rich DNA with high fidelity while tolerating dUTP substitution.^[106]^[107]^[108]^[109] In the 2020s, engineered variants of these specialized polymerases have been developed for integration with CRISPR-Cas systems, enhancing point-of-care diagnostics by combining isothermal amplification with Cas-mediated detection for rapid pathogen identification. These modifications, often involving chimeric fusions or activity-tuned mutants from thermophilic sources, improve sensitivity in resource-limited settings without thermal cycling.^[110]^[111]

Isothermal and Alternative Mechanism Variants

Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP)

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a nucleic acid amplification technique that enables rapid and specific DNA amplification under constant temperature conditions, eliminating the need for thermal cycling equipment. Developed in 2000 by Notomi and colleagues, LAMP utilizes a strand-displacing DNA polymerase to continuously extend primers and form loop structures on the target DNA, resulting in exponential amplification without denaturation steps.^[112] This method has become widely adopted for point-of-care diagnostics due to its simplicity and robustness in resource-limited settings. The LAMP reaction typically employs four to six primers that recognize six to eight distinct regions on the target DNA sequence. The core primers include two outer primers (F3 and B3) and two inner primers (forward inner primer, FIP; backward inner primer, BIP), with optional loop primers (forward loop, LF; backward loop, LB) added to accelerate the process by hybridizing to newly formed stem-loop structures.^[112]^[113] The reaction relies on the Bst DNA polymerase large fragment, which possesses strong strand displacement activity, and is performed isothermally at 60–65°C for 30–60 minutes, yielding up to 10^9 copies of the target sequence.^[112] This efficiency surpasses traditional PCR in speed while maintaining comparable sensitivity, detecting as few as 10 copies of template DNA.^[114] Detection of LAMP products can be achieved through multiple methods, including real-time monitoring of turbidity caused by magnesium pyrophosphate precipitation as a byproduct of the reaction, fluorescent dyes such as SYBR Green I, or colorimetric indicators like hydroxynaphthol blue for visual readout.^[115]^[114] Lateral flow assays enable simple, equipment-free detection similar to pregnancy tests. LAMP has been extensively applied in field diagnostics, such as for malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, where it provides rapid results in endemic areas with minimal infrastructure.^[116] Key advantages of LAMP include its isothermal nature, requiring only a heat block or water bath, and high specificity derived from multiple primer binding sites, which reduces off-target amplification compared to methods like recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) that rely on recombinase-mediated strand invasion.^[114] A variant, reverse transcription LAMP (RT-LAMP), incorporates reverse transcriptase to amplify RNA targets in a single tube, facilitating detection of RNA viruses such as dengue or SARS-CoV-2.^[117]^[114] However, limitations include the complexity of primer design due to the need for multiple specifically positioned oligonucleotides, which can lead to non-specific amplification if not optimized; this issue is often mitigated by adjusting dNTP concentrations and reaction ratios.^[118]^[119] As of 2025, recent advancements in LAMP include improved visualization techniques, such as enhanced fluorescence and turbidity-based readouts for faster, more sensitive point-of-care applications in viral diagnostics.^[120]

Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA)

Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) is an isothermal nucleic acid amplification technique that enables rapid, specific detection of DNA targets without the need for thermal cycling, operating at a constant temperature to facilitate point-of-care diagnostics. Developed in 2006 by Piepenburg et al., RPA achieves exponential amplification through a recombinase-mediated strand invasion mechanism, where primers invade double-stranded DNA templates, followed by polymerase extension to displace and amplify new strands.^[121] This process mimics homologous recombination, allowing amplification in as little as 10-20 minutes with high sensitivity, detecting as few as 1-10 copies of target DNA.^[122] The core components of RPA include the T4 bacteriophage UvsX recombinase, which forms a nucleoprotein filament with primers to enable homologous pairing and strand invasion; single-stranded DNA-binding protein (SSB) from Escherichia coli, which stabilizes displaced strands; and the Bsu polymerase from Bacillus subtilis, a strand-displacing enzyme that extends primers without requiring helicase activity.^[122] Reactions typically proceed at 37-42°C, making RPA suitable for resource-limited settings as it avoids specialized equipment like thermocyclers.^[123] Unlike loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), which relies on multiple primers to form stem-loop structures, RPA uses a simple two-primer system for efficient invasion and displacement.^[122] RPA has been widely applied in point-of-care testing, including rapid detection of pathogens such as Ebola virus during the 2015 outbreak in Guinea, where field-deployable assays confirmed cases in under 20 minutes.^[124] It also supports paper-based diagnostic formats, integrating amplification and readout on low-cost substrates for portable, inhibitor-tolerant tests in remote environments.^[125] Detection methods include real-time fluorescence monitoring via exonuclease probes or end-point lateral flow strips for visual readout, with multiplexing capabilities up to four targets using spectrally distinct probes or barcoded primers.^[126] Recent enhancements in the 2020s have combined RPA with CRISPR-Cas systems, such as in the SHERLOCK platform, where RPA pre-amplifies targets before Cas13a-mediated collateral cleavage for enhanced specificity and single-molecule detection in complex samples.^[127] These hybrids improve discrimination of single nucleotide polymorphisms and enable colorimetric or lateral flow readouts, expanding RPA's utility in infectious disease surveillance and environmental monitoring.^[128] As of 2025, RPA continues to advance in point-of-care applications for neglected tropical diseases, with new master mixes enabling ultra-rapid detection under ambient conditions.^[129]

Helicase-dependent Amplification (HDA)

Helicase-dependent amplification (HDA) is an isothermal nucleic acid amplification technique that employs a DNA helicase enzyme to unwind double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), thereby generating single-stranded templates for primer annealing and extension by a DNA polymerase, all without the need for thermal cycling. This method mimics the in vivo replication process by using ATP-dependent helicase activity to separate DNA strands at constant temperatures, typically between 37°C and 65°C, making it suitable for simple, portable devices. Single-stranded binding proteins (SSBs), such as T4 gene 32 protein, stabilize the unwound strands and prevent reannealing, facilitating continuous amplification cycles.^[130] HDA was first developed in 2004 by Vincent et al., who demonstrated its use with Escherichia coli UvrD helicase and exo⁻ Klenow fragment polymerase, achieving over 10⁶-fold amplification of target DNA in 3 hours at 37°C. Subsequent optimizations incorporated bacteriophage T7 gene 4 helicase (gp4), which enables unwinding at higher temperatures and supports strand-displacement synthesis with T7 DNA polymerase. This system can yield up to 10⁸-fold amplification within 90 minutes, depending on target length and reaction conditions, with real-time monitoring showing a doubling time of approximately 3 minutes. A key advantage is its ability to amplify from crude samples, such as bacterial cells or blood, without prior DNA purification.^[130]^[131] Applications of HDA include rapid pathogen detection in portable diagnostics, where its isothermal nature eliminates the need for expensive thermocyclers, making it ideal for low-resource settings. It has been integrated into microfluidic microchips for on-site testing of genetic markers, such as in food safety and infectious disease screening, with detection limits comparable to PCR. For RNA targets, reverse transcription HDA (RT-HDA) combines reverse transcriptase with the helicase system in a one-step reaction, enabling sensitive amplification of viral RNA, as shown in assays for tomato spotted wilt virus and SARS-CoV-2. Detection methods encompass real-time fluorescence using intercalating dyes or labeled primers, as well as endpoint agarose gel electrophoresis, with the former allowing quantitative monitoring in under an hour. A notable variation is thermophilic HDA (tHDA), which uses thermostable T7 gp4 helicase and Bst polymerase to operate at 65°C, enhancing reaction speed and specificity for longer targets up to 2.5 kb while reducing non-specific amplification. This version improves efficiency in integrated devices and has been applied in multiplex formats for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens. Overall, HDA's simplicity and compatibility with miniaturization position it as a versatile tool for point-of-care molecular diagnostics.^[131]^[132] As of 2025, advancements include engineered helicases that further reduce amplification times and integrate HDA into unified biosensing platforms for streamlined pathogen detection.^[133]^[134]

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An Inverse PCR Technique to Rapidly Isolate the Flanking DNA of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Restriction enzyme mediated integration is a widely used and effective method for insertional mutagenesis in Dictyostelium discoideum.
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Inverse Polymerase Chain Reaction - an overview
IPCR (Inverse PCR) is a basic genome walking method based on conventional PCR. It was developed by Ochman et al. (1988), and is the earliest genome walking ...
[83]
5′-Long Terminal Repeat-Selective CpG Methylation of Latent ...
To enable the differential analysis of the 5′ LTR, we determined the 5′ flanking DNA sequences of the integrated provirus by using the inverse PCR technique (40) ...
[84]
High-fidelity amplification using a thermostable DNA polymerase ...
These studies demonstrate that the error rate per nucleotide induced in the 182 known detectable sites of the lacI gene was 1.6 × 10−6 for Pfu DNA polymerase, ...
[85]
PCR fidelity of pfu DNA polymerase and other thermostable DNA ...
Average error rates (mutation frequency/bp/duplication) increased as follows: Pfu (1.3 x 10(-6)) < Deep Vent (2.7 x 10(-6)) < Vent (2.8 x 10(-6)) < Taq (8.0 x ...
[86]
https://europepmc.org/article/pmc/146123
[87]
Betaine improves the PCR amplification of GC-rich DNA sequences
It is suggested that betaine improves the amplification of these genes by reducing the formation of secondary structure caused by GC-rich regions.Missing: additive | Show results with:additive
[88]
[PDF] High-fidelity amplification using a thermostable DNA polymerase ...
The average error rate was determined to be 1.6 x 10deh for Pfu DNA polymerase and 2.0 x 10 I' for 7'aq DNA polymerase. Thus, if a 1-kb sequence is amplified ...
[89]
https://www.larova.com/images/44d4eaff85/Lundberg_1991.pdf
[90]
Error Rate Comparison during Polymerase Chain Reaction by DNA ...
We have measured the error rates for 6 DNA polymerases commonly used in PCR applications, including 3 polymerases typically used for cloning applications ...
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How is Hot-Start Technology Beneficial For Your PCR
Hot-start modifications inhibit DNA polymerase's activity at room temperature, preventing spurious bands from nonspecific amplification.Missing: noise fold
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PCR Using Hot Start Taq DNA Polymerase | アジレント
### SureStart Taq DNA Polymerase Mechanism and Benefits
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https://www.agilent.com/en/product/polymerase-chain-reaction-%28pcr%29/pcr-enzymes-reagents/dna-polymerases-for-pcr/surestart-taq-dna-polymerase-233185
[94]
PCR Amplification | An Introduction to PCR Methods
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a relatively simple technique that amplifies a DNA template to produce specific DNA fragments in vitro.
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Platinum II Taq Hot-Start DNA Polymerase - Thermo Fisher Scientific
Discover Platinum II Taq Hot-Start DNA Polymerases for PCR applications such as genotyping, gene expression profiling, and molecular diagnostics.
[96]
KAPA HiFi HotStart ReadyMix - Roche Sequencing Store
KAPA HiFi HotStart ReadyMix is a novel, single-enzyme system that exhibits industry-leading fidelity and performance vs other polymerases.
[97]
Overview of thermostable DNA polymerases for classical PCR ...
During the genomics era, the use of thermostable DNA polymerases increased greatly. Many were identified and described-mainly of the genera Thermus, ...
[98]
Hot Spring Metagenomics - MDPI
Apr 25, 2013 · The classical example is Taq DNA polymerase from Thermus aquaticus, purified and isolated from hot springs [1], which made the development of ...
[99]
Manganese-independent Reverse Transcriptase Activity of Tth DNA ...
The DNA polymerase of Thermus thermophilus (Tth pol) presents reverse transcriptase activity with Mn2+, and can be used for one-step RT-qPCR. However, Mn2+ ...
[100]
Tth DNA Polymerase - CustomBiotech from Roche
Tth DNA Polymerase is a thermostable DNA Polymerase with intrinsic reverse transcriptase activity for RT-PCR amplification of RNA to a length of at least 1 kb.
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rTth DNA Polymerase - TOYOBO
Therefore, this enzyme enables "one-step RT-PCR" including the reverse transcription and PCR steps. Kits for one-step RT-PCR (Code No. PCR-311F) and real-time ...
[102]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36797604/
[103]
Fidelity of Thermococcus litoralis DNA polymerase (Vent) in PCR ...
DNA synthesis fidelities of two thermostable DNA polymerases, Thermus aquaticus (Taq) and Thermococcus litoralis (Tli, also known as Vent), ...
[104]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC328561/
[105]
Advantages of thermococcus kodakaraenis (KOD) DNA Polymerase ...
Processivity, the number of nucleotides extended before the polymerase detaches, is 5–20 times higher for KOD compared to Taq or Pfu. This property along with ...Missing: scotoductus | Show results with:scotoductus
[106]
Thermophilic Nucleic Acid Polymerases and Their Application in ...
Nov 29, 2022 · PCR technique based on KOD DNAP was further developed for accurate amplification of long DNAs [88]. With a mixture of wild-type KOD DNAP and its ...
[107]
Expression and Characterization of the RKOD DNA Polymerase in ...
Thermococcus kodakaraensis KOD1 is a DNA polymerase that is widely used in PCR. The DNA coding sequence of KOD was optimized based on the codon usage bias of P.
[108]
DNA polymerases in precise and predictable CRISPR/Cas9 ...
Dec 8, 2023 · We found that Polλ is the main DNA polymerase responsible for fill-in of the 5′ overhangs of staggered Cas9 cleavage ends.
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CRISPR/Cas12a-mediated Enzymatic recombinase amplification for ...
May 15, 2023 · Combining the CRISPR/Cas12a system with isothermal amplification can overcome the limitation imposed by the poor specificity of isothermal ...
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Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA - PMC - NIH
Advantages of LAMP. (i) LAMP amplifies DNA with high efficiency under isothermal conditions without a significant influence of the co-presence of non-target DNA ...Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
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Accelerated reaction by loop-mediated isothermal amplification ...
Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a novel nucleic acid amplification method that amplifies DNA with high specificity, efficiency and rapidity ...Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
[112]
Loop‐mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) - PubMed Central
Loop‐mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) amplifies DNA with high specificity, efficiency and rapidity under isothermal conditions by using a DNA polymerase ...
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Detection of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Reaction by ...
A large amount of by-product, pyrophosphate ion, is produced, yielding white precipitate of magnesium pyrophosphate in the reaction mixture.
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Evaluation of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) for ...
These results indicate that LAMP is an effective tool for malaria diagnosis at a field clinic in a field setting. A rapid and accurate diagnosis of malaria ...
[115]
Real-Time Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal ...
The present study describes the development of a one-step, single-tube real-time accelerated RT-LAMP assay for rapid detection of the E gene of WN virus.
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Evolution of the Probe-Based Loop-Mediated Isothermal ... - NIH
Apr 24, 2023 · The major limitation is that LAMP frequently yields spurious amplicons if the primers interact with each other [35], which can result in false ...
[117]
Loop-mediated isothermal amplification establishment for detection ...
The LAMP reaction conditions were optimized by varying the concentration of MgSO4, dNTPs, primers, amplification temperature and reaction time. The results ...Missing: limitations complexity non-
[118]
DNA Detection Using Recombination Proteins | PLOS Biology
The technology presented in this study, recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), overcomes the technical difficulties posed by current DNA amplification ...
[119]
Recombinase polymerase amplification: Basics, applications ... - PMC
Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) is a highly sensitive, isothermal technique operating at 37-42°C, amplifying as low as 1-10 DNA copies in under 20 ...
[120]
Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA) - US
It is performed at a constant temperature of 39–42°C, making it highly suitable for detecting various pathogens in field conditions. RPA can also be used to ...
[121]
Development and deployment of a rapid recombinase polymerase ...
In the absence of a vaccine or specific treatments for Ebola virus disease (EVD), early identification of cases is crucial for the control of EVD epidemics.
[122]
A Paper and Plastic Device for Performing Recombinase ...
RPA is an isothermal nucleic acid amplification method that utilizes recombinase enzyme to facilitate the binding of oligonucleotide primers to template DNA.
[123]
Multiplex Detection of Nucleic Acids Using Recombinase ...
Here, we investigate expanding RPA POC detection by identifying a generic multiplex RPA format that can be combined with a generic multiplex lateral flow device ...
[124]
SHERLOCK: Nucleic acid detection with CRISPR nucleases - NIH
Apr 1, 2020 · Here we provide step-by-step instructions for setting up SHERLOCK assays with recombinase-mediated polymerase pre-amplification of DNA or RNA, ...
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Nucleic acid detection with CRISPR-Cas13a/C2c2 | Science
Apr 13, 2017 · Of the methods explored, recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) (18) afforded the greatest sensitivity and could be coupled with T7 ...
[126]
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.9b01097
[127]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6956564/
[128]
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aam9321