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Generalized Maxwell model

The generalized Maxwell model, also known as the Maxwell–Wiechert model, is a linear viscoelastic constitutive model that describes the time-dependent deformation of materials exhibiting both elastic recovery and viscous flow under mechanical stress.^[1]^[2]^[3] It represents the most general form of linear viscoelasticity by combining a single elastic spring in parallel with multiple Maxwell elements, where each Maxwell element consists of a spring (elastic component) and a dashpot (viscous component) connected in series, enabling the model to capture a broad spectrum of relaxation times corresponding to different molecular or structural scales in the material.^[1]^[4]^[5] Developed as an extension of James Clerk Maxwell's 1867 simple viscoelastic model, the generalized version was introduced by Emil Wiechert in the early 20th century to better approximate the complex relaxation behaviors observed in real materials like polymers, where a single relaxation time is insufficient.^[2]^[3] The model's structure allows it to reduce to simpler forms, such as the standard Maxwell model (one element, fluid-like) or the Kelvin-Voigt model (parallel spring-dashpot, solid-like), by setting appropriate elastic constants or viscosities, making it versatile for both solid and fluid viscoelastic responses.^[1]^[4] Mathematically, the total stress is the sum of contributions from the equilibrium spring and each Maxwell branch, with the relaxation modulus expressed as a Prony series: G(t) = G_\infty + \sum_{i=1}^N G_i e^{-t/\tau_i}, where G_\infty is the long-term modulus, G_i are branch moduli, and \tau_i = \eta_i / G_i are relaxation times.^[1]^[3] In creep tests under constant stress, the model predicts an initial elastic strain followed by time-dependent viscous flow that approaches a steady state if an equilibrium spring is included.^[4]^[5] Conversely, in relaxation tests under constant strain, stress decays exponentially across multiple timescales, reflecting the material's ability to dissipate energy over time.^[3]^[4] This multi-time-scale capability makes the model superior to basic viscoelastic representations for accurately fitting experimental data from materials such as asphalt, rubber, biological tissues, and polymer composites.^[5]^[2] The generalized Maxwell model finds wide applications in engineering simulations, including finite element analysis for structural dynamics, geomechanics, and biomechanics, where it is implemented via integral formulations or state-variable evolution equations to handle deviatoric viscoelasticity while keeping volumetric behavior elastic.^[1]^[3] Parameter identification often involves optimizing relaxation times and moduli to match Prony series fits from dynamic mechanical analysis or creep-recovery tests, ensuring numerical stability in simulations by constraining time steps to fractions of the shortest relaxation time.^[1]^[4]

Background Concepts

Viscoelasticity Fundamentals

Viscoelasticity is a material property that exhibits both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation, allowing materials to store and dissipate energy in a time-dependent manner. This behavior arises from the molecular structure, particularly in polymers and biological tissues, where elastic recovery competes with viscous flow. Unlike purely elastic materials, which return to their original shape instantaneously, or purely viscous fluids, which deform permanently, viscoelastic materials display a combination of these responses under applied stress or strain.^[6]^[2] The foundational developments in viscoelasticity occurred in the 19th century, with contributions from physicists such as James Clerk Maxwell, who proposed a model for viscous-elastic fluids in 1867; Lord Kelvin, who explored damping and elasticity in metals; and Woldemar Voigt, who in 1892 introduced a model combining elastic and viscous elements in parallel. These early works laid the groundwork for understanding time-dependent material responses, initially motivated by observations in gases, metals, and glasses. Linear viscoelasticity, the focus of theoretical analysis, assumes small deformations where the response is proportional to the applied load and governed by the principle of superposition.^[7]^[8] Key phenomena in linear viscoelasticity include stress relaxation, creep, and hysteresis. Stress relaxation occurs when a material is subjected to constant strain, resulting in a gradual decrease in stress over time due to internal rearrangements, quantified by the relaxation modulus E(t) = \sigma(t)/\epsilon_0. Creep describes the progressive increase in strain under constant stress, characterized by the creep compliance D(t) = \epsilon(t)/\sigma_0, often showing an initial elastic response followed by viscous flow. Hysteresis manifests in cyclic loading as a loop in the stress-strain curve, indicating energy dissipation through viscous mechanisms, with the area of the loop representing lost energy per cycle. These behaviors are analyzed within the linear regime, where the total response is the superposition of incremental effects, as per Boltzmann's principle.^[6]^[2]^[9] The general constitutive equation for linear viscoelasticity is expressed through the Boltzmann superposition integral, which relates stress \sigma(t) to the history of strain rate:

\sigma(t) = \int_{-\infty}^{t} G(t - \tau) \frac{d\epsilon(\tau)}{d\tau} \, d\tau

Here, G(t) is the relaxation modulus, capturing the material's memory of past deformations, and the integral assumes causality and time-invariance. This form encapsulates the time-dependent nature of viscoelastic response under small strains, where linearity ensures scalability of stress and strain.^[9]^[6]^[2]

Maxwell Element

The Maxwell element, introduced by James Clerk Maxwell in his foundational work on the dynamical theory of gases, represents the simplest viscoelastic model combining elastic and viscous responses in series. It consists of a Hookean spring with elastic modulus E, representing instantaneous recoverable deformation, connected in series to a Newtonian dashpot with viscosity \eta, representing time-dependent irreversible flow.^[10]^[3] The constitutive equation for the Maxwell element relates stress \sigma and strain \epsilon through their rates, derived from the series configuration where total strain rate is the sum of elastic and viscous contributions:

\frac{d\epsilon}{dt} = \frac{\sigma}{\eta} + \frac{1}{E} \frac{d\sigma}{dt}.

This differential equation captures the interplay between viscous flow and elastic recovery, with the dashpot enforcing equal stress across elements and the spring enforcing equal strain rates in series.^[4]^[9] Under constant strain \epsilon = \epsilon_0 applied at t=0, the Maxwell element exhibits stress relaxation, where initial stress \sigma(0) = E \epsilon_0 decays exponentially over time. Substituting \frac{d\epsilon}{dt} = 0 into the constitutive equation yields \frac{d\sigma}{dt} = -\frac{E}{\eta} \sigma, a first-order differential equation solved as \sigma(t) = \sigma(0) \exp\left(-\frac{t}{\tau}\right), with relaxation time constant \tau = \frac{\eta}{E}. The relaxation modulus, defined as G(t) = \frac{\sigma(t)}{\epsilon_0}, thus follows:

G(t) = E \exp\left(-\frac{t}{\tau}\right).

This exponential decay characterizes the transition from initial elastic stiffness to viscous dominance.^[4]^[3] Despite its simplicity, the Maxwell element has key limitations: it lacks an instantaneous elastic response upon sudden loading, as the dashpot prevents immediate deformation, and it predicts unbounded long-term flow under sustained stress, exhibiting fluid-like behavior rather than solid equilibrium. These traits make it suitable for modeling liquids or highly viscous materials but inadequate for solids without additional parallel elements.^[4]^[9]

Model Formulation

General Structure

The generalized Maxwell model consists of N parallel Maxwell elements, where each element is formed by a spring of modulus G_i in series with a dashpot of viscosity \eta_i (for i = 1 to N), optionally augmented by an additional spring of modulus G_{eq} connected in parallel to represent equilibrium elastic behavior in solids.^[4] This schematic arrangement, also referred to as the Maxwell-Wiechert model, allows for the representation of a discrete spectrum of relaxation processes through distinct relaxation times \tau_i = \eta_i / G_i for each arm.^[1] Each individual Maxwell arm corresponds to the basic Maxwell element, capturing combined elastic and viscous deformation in series.^[11] In this parallel configuration, all elements experience the same total strain \epsilon, while the total stress \sigma is the sum of the stresses contributed by each Maxwell arm \sigma_i and the equilibrium spring: \sigma = \sum_{i=1}^N \sigma_i + G_{eq} \epsilon.^[11] The physical interpretation lies in modeling materials with multiple characteristic timescales for stress relaxation, where shorter \tau_i correspond to rapid viscous dissipation and longer ones to slower recovery, enabling accurate approximation of experimental relaxation spectra in polymers and other viscoelastic media.^[4] For viscoelastic fluids, the model sets G_{eq} = 0, resulting in no long-term elastic modulus and permitting unbounded deformation under sustained stress, akin to flow behavior.^[1] In contrast, including G_{eq} > 0 yields a solid-like response with finite equilibrium stiffness.^[4] The overall constitutive relation manifests as a high-order linear ordinary differential equation (ODE) of order N, coupling the stress \sigma and strain \epsilon along with their time derivatives up to the N-th order, typically expressed in the form

\left(1 + \sum_{k=1}^{N} a_k \frac{d^k}{dt^k}\right) \sigma(t) = \left( E_0 + \sum_{k=1}^{N} b_k \frac{d^k}{dt^k}\right) \epsilon(t),

where the coefficients a_k, b_k, and E_0 are determined by the model parameters and ensure physical realizability.^[9]

Relaxation Modulus Expression

The relaxation modulus G(t) of the generalized Maxwell model arises from the superposition principle applied to the parallel configuration of multiple Maxwell elements, each consisting of a spring and dashpot in series, optionally augmented by an equilibrium spring. For a step strain input \gamma_0 applied at t=0, the stress response \sigma(t) in each Maxwell arm decays exponentially as \sigma_i(t) = G_i \gamma_0 \exp(-t / \tau_i), where G_i is the spring modulus and \tau_i is the relaxation time of the i-th arm. The total stress is the sum of contributions from all arms and the equilibrium spring, yielding the relaxation modulus via \sigma(t) = G(t) \gamma_0.^[12] The primary expression for the relaxation modulus is thus

G(t) = G_{\mathrm{eq}} + \sum_{i=1}^N G_i \exp\left( -\frac{t}{\tau_i} \right),

where G_{\mathrm{eq}} is the equilibrium modulus (zero for purely viscous responses), G_i are the moduli of the N Maxwell arms, and \tau_i = \eta_i / G_i are the corresponding relaxation times with viscosities \eta_i.^[12] For viscoelastic fluids, the model omits the equilibrium spring, setting G_{\mathrm{eq}} = 0, so G(t) = \sum_{i=1}^N G_i \exp(-t / \tau_i) and G(t) \to 0 as t \to \infty, reflecting complete stress relaxation over long times.^[13] This form is often normalized and expressed in Prony series notation as

\frac{G(t)}{G_0} = g_{\infty} + \sum_{i=1}^N g_i \exp\left( -\frac{t}{\tau_i} \right),

where G_0 = G_{\mathrm{eq}} + \sum_{i=1}^N G_i is the instantaneous modulus, g_{\infty} = G_{\mathrm{eq}} / G_0, and g_i = G_i / G_0 with \sum g_i + g_{\infty} = 1.^[14] The moduli G_i and G_{\mathrm{eq}} have units of pascals (Pa), while the relaxation times \tau_i are in seconds (s).^[12]

Mathematical Properties

Time-Domain Behavior

In the time domain, the generalized Maxwell model predicts stress relaxation through the relaxation modulus G(t), which decays as a sum of exponentials: G(t) = G_\mathrm{e} + \sum_{i=1}^N G_i \exp(-t / \tau_i), where G_\mathrm{e} is the equilibrium modulus, G_i are the moduli of individual Maxwell elements, and \tau_i = \eta_i / G_i are the relaxation times.^[15] For N > 1, this multi-exponential form results in a multi-modal decay, with distinct relaxation regimes corresponding to short and long timescales; on a logarithmic plot of G(t) versus time, the curve exhibits steps or plateaus if the \tau_i are logarithmically spaced, reflecting sequential relaxation of molecular segments or entanglements.^[15]^[16] The creep compliance J(t) is derived from the inverse relation to G(t) via the Boltzmann superposition principle and satisfies the convolution t = \int_0^t G(s) J(t - s) \, ds.^[15] For a solid configuration (finite G_\mathrm{e} > 0), it can be represented using a Prony series in terms of retardation parameters:

J(t) = J_g + \sum_{k=1}^M J_k \left(1 - \exp\left(-\frac{t}{\lambda_k}\right)\right),

where J_g = 1/(G_\mathrm{e} + \sum G_i) is the glassy (instantaneous) compliance, J_k > 0 are the retardation strengths, and \lambda_k are the retardation times, which are related to the relaxation parameters \{G_i, \tau_i\} through interconversion methods such as numerical Laplace transform inversion or approximation schemes.^[15]^[17] In the general case for fluids (with G_\mathrm{e} = 0), an additional linear term t / \eta_0 is included to capture steady-state viscous flow, where \eta_0 = \sum_{i=1}^N G_i \tau_i is the zero-shear viscosity obtained by integrating G(t).^[15]^[16] Long-term behavior differs markedly between solids and fluids: in solids, G(t) \to G_\mathrm{e} > 0 and J(t) \to 1/G_\mathrm{e}, yielding a finite equilibrium response with no permanent flow; in fluids (G_\mathrm{e} = 0), G(t) \to 0 and J(t) \sim t / \eta_0, indicating unbounded viscous flow under sustained stress.^[15] For step responses, a sudden strain \epsilon_0 elicits an initial stress \sigma(0) = [G_\mathrm{e} + \sum G_i] \epsilon_0 that relaxes according to G(t), while a sudden stress \sigma_0 produces an initial strain \epsilon(0) = \sigma_0 / [G_\mathrm{e} + \sum G_i] that evolves via J(t), transitioning from glassy to rubbery compliance.^[15] Numerical simulations of multi-order systems (N > 1) involve time-stepping methods to solve the coupled ordinary differential equations for each element's stress \sigma_i(t), given by \dot{\sigma}_i + \sigma_i / \tau_i = G_i \dot{\epsilon}(t), with total stress \sigma(t) = G_\mathrm{e} \epsilon(t) + \sum \sigma_i(t); explicit or implicit schemes ensure stability for stiff systems with widely varying \tau_i.^[15]

Frequency-Domain Representation

In the frequency domain, the generalized Maxwell model describes the viscoelastic response under oscillatory or sinusoidal loading, where the material is subjected to harmonic deformations at angular frequency \omega. The behavior is characterized by the complex modulus G^*(\omega) = G'(\omega) + i G''(\omega), with the storage modulus G'(\omega) representing the elastic energy storage and the loss modulus G''(\omega) representing the viscous energy dissipation.^[15] For the discrete form of the model, consisting of multiple Maxwell elements in parallel with an optional equilibrium spring, the storage modulus is given by

G'(\omega) = G_\text{eq} + \sum_i G_i \frac{(\omega \tau_i)^2}{1 + (\omega \tau_i)^2},

and the loss modulus by

G''(\omega) = \sum_i G_i \frac{\omega \tau_i}{1 + (\omega \tau_i)^2},

where G_\text{eq} is the equilibrium modulus (zero for fluids), G_i are the moduli of the springs in the i-th Maxwell element, and \tau_i are the corresponding relaxation times. These expressions arise from the continuous relaxation spectrum H(\tau), where the sums approximate the integrals G'(\omega) = G_\text{eq} + \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} H(\tau) \frac{\omega^2 \tau^2}{1 + \omega^2 \tau^2} \, d\ln\tau and G''(\tau) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} H(\tau) \frac{\omega \tau}{1 + \omega^2 \tau^2} \, d\ln\tau.^[15] The complex modulus G^*(\omega) is derived from the time-domain relaxation modulus G(t) via the Fourier transform, specifically G^*(\omega) = i\omega \int_0^\infty G(t) e^{-i\omega t} \, dt, or equivalently using the Laplace transform by substituting s = i\omega. This transformation connects the transient relaxation behavior to steady-state harmonic responses, enabling analysis in dynamic mechanical spectroscopy where sinusoidal strains reveal frequency-dependent properties.^[15] The loss tangent, defined as \tan \delta(\omega) = G''(\omega) / G'(\omega), quantifies the ratio of dissipated to stored energy per cycle and peaks at frequencies corresponding to relaxation transitions, providing insight into damping mechanisms in viscoelastic materials.^[15] To capture broad relaxation spectra over limited experimental frequency ranges, master curves are constructed using time-temperature superposition, shifting data from different temperatures by a factor a_T to form a single composite curve at a reference temperature; this principle, rooted in the thermorheologically simple behavior of many polymers, reveals frequency-dependent stiffening at high \omega (dominated by glassy modulus) and softening at low \omega (approaching rubbery or equilibrium response).^[15] This frequency-domain formulation excels in modeling polymers, where it accurately represents the progressive stiffening with increasing frequency due to chain segment immobilization and softening from cooperative motions, as observed in dynamic mechanical analysis of amorphous and entangled systems.^[15]

Applications in Materials

Solid Viscoelastic Models

The generalized Maxwell model applied to solid viscoelastic materials incorporates a positive equilibrium modulus G_{eq} > 0, which represents the long-term elastic response and ensures that the material does not fully relax under sustained stress, thereby capturing the finite elasticity characteristic of solids such as rubbers and glassy polymers.^[18] This equilibrium component arises from a parallel spring in the model structure, preventing complete stress decay and maintaining structural integrity over extended timescales, in contrast to purely viscous behaviors.^[9] In the relaxation modulus expression G(t), the term G_{eq} provides the asymptotic value as t \to \infty, enabling accurate prediction of residual stiffness in solid-like responses.^[18] A prominent special case of the generalized Maxwell model for solids is the standard linear solid (SLS), achieved with N=1 Maxwell arm in parallel with the equilibrium spring G_{eq}, which is mathematically equivalent to the Zener model introduced in 1948.^[9] The SLS effectively describes materials exhibiting both instantaneous elasticity and time-dependent viscous effects, with the equilibrium modulus ensuring a non-zero long-term compliance suitable for solid deformation analysis.^[9] This three-parameter configuration balances simplicity and realism, making it ideal for initial modeling of solid viscoelasticity before extending to more complex forms.^[19] For broader relaxation spectra in heterogeneous solids, the model employs multiple arms (N=2 or more), allowing each arm to contribute distinct relaxation mechanisms that span wide time scales and capture the distributed viscoelastic response in materials like polymer composites or soft biological tissues.^[20] In composites, these additional arms account for interfacial effects and filler-induced broadening of the relaxation modulus, enhancing fidelity in predicting dynamic mechanical properties.^[21] Similarly, in soft tissues, multi-arm configurations model the hierarchical structure of collagen and elastin networks, providing a continuum representation of creep and recovery behaviors under physiological loads.^[22] Applications of the generalized Maxwell model in solid viscoelasticity include finite element simulations in biomechanics, where it facilitates stress-strain analysis of arterial walls and other load-bearing tissues by incorporating multi-modal relaxation to match experimental creep data.^[20] In automotive engineering, the model supports stress analysis in tire rubbers, such as styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) composites, by parameterizing relaxation to evaluate fatigue and rolling resistance under cyclic deformation.^[23] These implementations often rely on numerical integration for time-domain solutions, enabling predictive design in both fields.^[18] Typical relaxation times \tau_i in the model for solid materials range from seconds to hours, reflecting the diverse molecular mobilities in polymers and elastomers; for instance, short \tau_i (around 0.01–10 seconds) dominate glassy transitions, while longer ones (up to hours) govern rubbery plateau behaviors.^[18] Parameter identification from dynamic mechanical analysis ensures these values align with experimental spectra, optimizing model accuracy for specific solids.^[24]

Fluid Viscoelastic Models

The generalized Maxwell model applied to fluid viscoelastic behaviors sets the equilibrium modulus G_{eq} = 0, resulting in a relaxation modulus G(t) that decays to zero over long times, which captures the dissipative viscous flow dominant in materials like polymer melts and solutions without residual elasticity.^[25] This configuration aligns with parallel arrangements of Maxwell elements, enabling the description of time-dependent stress relaxation leading to complete flow, as opposed to partial recovery in solids. Such models are essential for predicting the rheological response of fluids where elastic effects are transient, influenced by molecular chain entanglements that relax under sustained deformation.^[26] A foundational example is the three-parameter Jeffreys model, proposed by Harold Jeffreys in 1929, which consists of a Maxwell element in parallel with a dashpot (Newtonian solvent), extending the simple Maxwell model by including a retardation time.^[27]^[28] This structure models the interplay between viscous damping and elastic storage in fluids, predicting steady creep under constant stress, as derived from irreversible thermodynamics for geophysical and rheological contexts. The Jeffreys model formulation allows accurate representation of fluids with finite retardation times that exhibit delayed compliance.^[28] The generalized Oldroyd-B model emerges as a multi-mode extension, analogous to multiple parallel Maxwell arms combined with a Newtonian solvent viscosity, providing a comprehensive framework for complex fluid dynamics with distributed relaxation spectra. Originally formulated for non-Newtonian flows, its generalized form incorporates several relaxation times to mimic polydisperse polymer systems, enhancing predictions of shear-thinning and normal stress effects in dilute to semi-dilute solutions.^[29] In steady shear flows at low shear rates, these models yield a Newtonian viscosity \eta_0 = \sum \eta_i, where \eta_i = G_i \tau_i sums the contributions from each Maxwell arm's viscosity, establishing the baseline flow resistance before nonlinear deviations.^[30] These fluid models find practical utility in processes involving viscoelastic liquids, such as inkjet printing, where the transient elasticity affects droplet ejection and satellite formation in polymer-based inks, requiring precise tuning of relaxation times for high-fidelity deposition.^[31] In food processing, they describe the flow of viscoelastic polymer solutions or melts during extrusion and mixing, optimizing texture and stability in products like gels or sauces by accounting for shear-induced relaxation.^[32]

Model Comparisons

With Single Maxwell Model

The single Maxwell model, consisting of a spring and dashpot in series, is limited by its single relaxation time constant \tau, which restricts its ability to describe materials with broad relaxation spectra, such as polymers exhibiting multiple molecular relaxation processes.^[2] This model also lacks an equilibrium modulus, predicting complete stress relaxation to zero under constant strain, which does not align with real materials that retain some elastic response at long times.^[5] Furthermore, it exhibits unlimited creep under sustained stress, leading to infinite strain over time, a behavior unsuitable for solids or semi-solids.^[5] In contrast, the generalized Maxwell model overcomes these shortcomings by incorporating multiple Maxwell elements in parallel, each with distinct relaxation times \tau_i, enabling it to capture non-exponential relaxation typical of complex materials like polymers and biological tissues.^[2] An additional equilibrium spring with modulus G_{eq} can be included in parallel, allowing for partial relaxation where stress approaches a finite value rather than zero, thus better representing materials with long-term elasticity.^[1] For instance, while the single model forecasts full dissipation of stress in a step strain experiment, the generalized model can fit experimental data showing residual modulus, as seen in rubber-like polymers.^[1] The single Maxwell model remains appropriate for simple fluids with narrow relaxation spectra, such as dilute polymer solutions exhibiting primarily viscous flow on long timescales.^[2] However, for broader applications, the generalized form provides superior realism. Historically, the evolution from the single to the generalized Maxwell model gained prominence in polymer modeling after the 1950s, driven by the need to represent diverse viscoelastic behaviors in synthetic materials; Roscoe (1950) demonstrated that any linear viscoelastic response could be equivalently expressed using such multi-element configurations, facilitating their adoption in rheological studies.^[33]

With Kelvin-Voigt Model

The Kelvin-Voigt model consists of a spring and dashpot connected in parallel, combining elastic and viscous responses to exhibit delayed elasticity under applied stress.^[4] This configuration allows the model to effectively capture creep behavior, where strain gradually increases over time under constant stress, mimicking the retarded elastic deformation observed in certain materials.^[34] However, it fails to describe stress relaxation, as the parallel arrangement results in a constant stress response under fixed strain, with no decay to zero over time.^[4] In contrast, the generalized Maxwell model, comprising multiple Maxwell elements (each a spring-dashpot in series) arranged in parallel, excels at modeling stress relaxation while providing a more nuanced representation of viscoelastic dynamics.^[24] Unlike the Kelvin-Voigt model, which lacks an instantaneous elastic response due to the dashpot's resistance to sudden deformation, the generalized Maxwell model incorporates immediate strain upon loading followed by relaxation through its distributed relaxation times.^[34] This makes it superior for materials where time-dependent stress decay is prominent, as the Kelvin-Voigt predicts an infinite relaxation time, whereas the generalized Maxwell yields finite relaxation times \tau_i = \eta_i / G_i for each branch, enabling accurate fitting to experimental relaxation spectra.^[4] The generalized Maxwell model's ability to hybridize multiple relaxation modes provides deeper insights into materials dominated by relaxation processes, such as polymers, where the Kelvin-Voigt's simplistic parallel structure oversimplifies the spectrum of time scales.^[24] For instance, in polymer melts or networks, the generalized Maxwell captures the broad distribution of molecular relaxations that lead to eventual stress equilibration, a feature absent in the Kelvin-Voigt framework.^[35] In practical applications, the Kelvin-Voigt model is often employed for porous materials like polymeric foams, where creep under compression is the primary concern, such as in cushioning or insulation.^[36] Conversely, the generalized Maxwell model is preferred for amorphous materials like glasses, which exhibit pronounced viscoelastic relaxation during thermal processing or mechanical loading near the glass transition.^[37]

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Foams, as a type of porous materials, have found broad functional and structural application in heat and sound insulation, the mitigation of mechanical ...
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