Hand game
Hand games are a diverse category of games played primarily using the hands, without requiring additional equipment, and are found across numerous cultures worldwide. They encompass rhythm and clapping games (often involving songs and patterns), competitive physical games (such as thumb wrestling or mercy), and guessing or strategy games that test observation and deception. These games serve social, educational, and recreational purposes, promoting coordination, memory, and interaction among players of all ages.[1] A prominent example within the guessing and strategy category is the traditional Indigenous North American handgame, also known as a stick game or bone game, played by over 80 tribes across the western United States and Canada. Originating more than 5,000 years ago, it involves teams concealing small objects like bones or beads in their hands while opponents guess their locations, often accompanied by drumming, songs, and hand signals for inter-tribal play. The game holds deep cultural significance for social bonding, conflict resolution, gambling (with stakes ranging from traditional items to modern cash prizes up to $40,000 in tournaments), and spiritual practices linked to figures like Coyote. Historically a winter pastime, it facilitated communication via universal gestures among diverse linguistic groups.[2][3][4] Today, Indigenous handgames continue in community events, school programs, annual tournaments (such as those in Oklahoma and Montana as of 2024), and virtual formats, maintaining elements of strategy and communal joy while adapting to contemporary settings. Gender-inclusive participation is common, with some traditions like the Osage featuring more women players than men. Variations in rules, objects, and scoring exist across tribes, emphasizing kinship and endurance without physical contact.[2][3]Overview
Definition
Hand games, also known as stick games or bone games, are traditional Indigenous North American guessing games in which players conceal small objects—such as bones, sticks, beads, or elk teeth—in their closed hands while opponents attempt to guess their locations using hand signals or pointing sticks.[4][2] Played by teams seated facing each other, these games emphasize manual skill, coordination, and direct player engagement through deception and observation, serving as accessible forms of cultural play.[4] They are distinguished from broader play forms that incorporate larger props or full-body movement, such as card games or sports like handball, by their focus on localized hand actions involving concealed objects and non-verbal guessing without physical contact.[4] Typically involving two teams of multiple players, hand games are enjoyed in community settings, including gatherings, tournaments, and educational programs, facilitating participation among diverse age groups within Indigenous communities.[2][3]Key Characteristics
Hand games are defined by their core use of the hands for non-verbal communication through gestures and signals, enabling interaction without reliance on spoken words, though accompanied by rhythmic drumming and culturally specific songs. These activities involve small concealed objects rather than being entirely prop-free, but require no dedicated equipment or space beyond the tally sticks used for scoring, contributing to their accessibility in traditional and modern settings.[2][4] The nature of player interaction centers on cooperative team strategies in alternating roles of hiding and guessing, where a correct guess awards a point to the guessing team, and the game continues until one team claims all points, promoting endurance and communal participation. Rules vary across tribes but maintain a structure of rhythmic elements and hand signals to facilitate inter-tribal play.[4][3] From a cultural perspective, hand games cultivate observation skills for reading deception, quick decision-making, and social bonding through teamwork and shared rituals, fostering kinship and cultural continuity in group settings.[2][4]History
Origins
Hand games among Native American tribes have ancient roots, with archaeological evidence suggesting origins over 5,000 years ago.[2] These games of chance incorporated gestures, songs, and hidden objects like marked bones or sticks, serving spiritual, social, and ceremonial purposes. Shamans employed sleight-of-hand techniques in hand games during healing rituals and prophesying around 1000–1500 CE, demonstrating religious power through ventriloquism and object animation, while communal play reinforced social and ceremonial bonds across tribes.[5][4][6]Global Evolution
Native American hand games spread across more than 80 tribes in the western United States and Canada, facilitated by universal hand gestures and sign language that enabled inter-tribal communication during gatherings, even when verbal languages differed.[4] Historically played during winter to pass long nights indoors, the games promoted unity and cultural exchange.[4] Colonization in the 19th and early 20th centuries shaped their trajectory, as U.S. and Canadian policies, including boarding schools, sought to suppress Indigenous practices. Despite these efforts, hand games persisted underground, maintaining their role in social gatherings, gambling, and spiritual traditions amid displacement and assimilation.[4] By the mid-20th century, they began re-emerging in community settings. In the late 20th century, hand games integrated into educational programs and cultural preservation initiatives. The 1970s and 1980s saw increased documentation through ethnomusicological studies, highlighting their significance in Indigenous communities.[7] Entering the 21st century, annual tournaments in regions like Oklahoma and Montana drew large crowds with stakes up to $40,000, while school programs and virtual formats expanded access.[2][3] During the COVID-19 pandemic after 2020, adaptations included virtual tournaments, such as Zoom-based Slahal competitions, and digital exhibitions to sustain social connections while adhering to distancing measures.[8][2] Today, as of 2025, hand games continue to foster kinship and cultural continuity through community events and online platforms.[2]Classification
Hand games in Indigenous North American traditions are primarily classified as games of chance, emphasizing guessing and deception rather than physical skill or rhythm alone. They involve teams hiding small objects (e.g., bones, sticks, or pebbles) in hands while opponents guess locations, often using pointing sticks or gestures. Variations occur across tribes, with differences in objects, team sizes, scoring, and accompanying rituals, but all share core elements of strategy, endurance, and cultural expression. Broader categories like clapping or physical contests exist in other cultural contexts but are not part of traditional Native hand games.[4][2]Rhythm and Clapping Games
Traditional Indigenous hand games incorporate rhythmic elements through drumming and songs rather than clapping patterns or children's rhymes. These auditory components create a steady beat to pace the guessing turns, build tension, and invoke spiritual support, often performed by singers who encourage the hiding team or distract guessers. For example, in Osage and Kiowa traditions, songs with repetitive verses synchronize the game's flow, enhancing communal participation without physical clapping. The rhythm fosters auditory-motor coordination among players and spectators, with studies noting its role in cultural transmission and social bonding during winter gatherings. Variations include faster tempos in competitive tournaments to test endurance, but the focus remains on verbal and gestural interaction, not manual synchronization like in non-Native clapping games.[3][2][4]Competitive Physical Games
Indigenous hand games are non-physical, emphasizing mental strategy and endurance over strength or pain tolerance, with no direct contact or submission mechanics like arm wrestling or finger-twisting contests. Instead, "competition" arises from prolonged sessions—sometimes lasting hours or days—testing patience and focus as teams alternate hiding and guessing until one claims all points via tally sticks. Risks are minimal, limited to fatigue, unlike injury-prone physical variants. In some tribal contexts, like Northwest Coast Slahal, the game pairs with bone-hiding and drumming for high-stakes wagering (e.g., blankets or horses), but resolution is through correct guesses, not physical dominance. This structure promotes conflict resolution and kinship without harm, aligning with cultural values of non-violence in play.[4][9][2]Guessing and Strategy Games
Guessing and strategy form the core of Indigenous hand games, where players use deception, pattern recognition, and probabilistic inference to conceal and detect hidden objects. Teams of 4–10 face off, with hiders signaling falsely via hand movements or songs while guessers point to hands using sticks; a correct guess scores a point, removing a tally stick from the hiders. Success relies on reading subtle cues, bluffing, and team coordination, often invoking trickster figures like Coyote for "luck." Notable variants include:- Stickgame or Bone Game: Common in Plains tribes (e.g., Kiowa, Comanche), using marked bones or sticks hidden in hands; guessers call "left" or "right," with 10–20 tally sticks starting the game. Northwest versions add a "kickstick" for bonus points.[2]
- Moccasin Game: Prevalent among Woodland and Plains tribes (e.g., Blackfeet, Cree), where a bullet or awl is hidden under one of four moccasins; guessers use a pointed stick to flip them, with songs aiding misdirection. Games can extend over nights, scoring until all "lives" are lost.[9][10]
- Lahal or Slahal: A Coast Salish variant using split bones (one marked) hidden in hands; teams guess collectively, with bones passed if wrong. Played in large gatherings, it emphasizes rapid turns and cultural songs, often with wagering up to modern cash prizes.[5][4]