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Respect

Respect is a prosocial attitude and behavioral response involving the acknowledgment of an entity's worth, authority, status, or competence, typically expressed through deference, esteem, or restraint from interference.^[1]^[2] Etymologically derived from the Latin respectus, meaning "a looking back" or "regard," it implies attentive consideration rather than mere tolerance or fear-based submission.^[1]^[2] In philosophical traditions, particularly those influenced by Immanuel Kant, respect entails recognizing others as autonomous agents with inherent dignity, prohibiting their instrumentalization as means to ends and grounding moral obligations.^[3] This contrasts with contingent forms of respect tied to achievements or roles, though empirical contexts often blend both, where perceived respect fosters equality recognition and agency attribution.^[3]^[4] From an evolutionary standpoint, respect likely emerged to navigate dominance hierarchies and alliance formation in ancestral groups, signaling deference to competent individuals who enhance cooperative outcomes while mitigating conflict; it parallels deference behaviors observed across social species, tracking relational value over mere power.^[5]^[6] Empirical studies confirm its functional role in human societies, linking feelings of respect—whether from authorities or peers—to heightened social engagement, prosocial actions, and innovative behaviors, while its absence correlates with disengagement or antagonism.^[7]^[8]^[9] Culturally variable yet universally recurrent, respect's expressions range from hierarchical deference in collectivist settings to egalitarian mutual regard in others, though modern interpretations sometimes dilute it into undifferentiated approval, diverging from its roots in earned regard or intrinsic human capacities.^[10] Defining characteristics include its bidirectional nature—encompassing self-respect as a prerequisite for granting it to others—and its causal link to stable social orders, where failures in reciprocal respect underpin conflicts from interpersonal disputes to societal breakdowns.^[12]^[4]

Definition and Etymology

Core Conceptual Definition

Respect denotes a normative attitude or behavioral disposition wherein an agent attributes moral significance or worth to a person, object, or principle, constraining actions to avoid diminishment or exploitation of that worth. This attribution typically manifests as restraint from arbitrary interference, deference to autonomy or authority, and sometimes proactive support, grounded in the perceived inherent or achieved value of the target. In ethical contexts, respect functions as a constraint on self-interest, prioritizing the target's standing over mere utility or preference, as evidenced in deontological traditions where it derives from rational agency rather than consequential outcomes.^[12] Philosophically, the core of respect lies in its relational structure: it requires perceiving the other as possessing a status that demands reciprocal accountability, often independent of personal liking or benefit. For instance, Immanuel Kant posited respect as the feeling aroused by the moral law's representation of human dignity, compelling individuals to regard others as autonomous ends rather than instrumental means, a view echoed in analyses emphasizing respect's role in upholding human rights and equality.^[12] Empirical correlates in social psychology link respect to reduced aggression and enhanced cooperation, as individuals who perceive mutual respect report higher trust and compliance in interactions, per studies on interpersonal dynamics.^[13] This conceptual foundation distinguishes respect from mere tolerance or civility, which lack the evaluative commitment to the target's intrinsic claims.

Linguistic Origins and Evolution

The term "respect" derives from the Latin noun respectus, the past participle of the verb respicere, meaning "to look back at" or "to regard," composed of the prefix re- ("back") and specere ("to look at").^[1] This etymological root emphasizes an act of attentive consideration or regard toward something observed.^[14] Introduced to English in the late 14th century via Old French respect (also denoting "regard" or "consideration"), the word initially signified "relation, condition, or fact of regarding" or a specific "aspect" warranting attention, particularly one of positive significance.^[1] By the early 15th century, its usage in Middle English texts, such as before 1398, reflected this relational sense, often tied to evaluation or contemplation rather than deference.^[15] Over the 16th century, the meaning evolved to include esteem and reverence; the verb form "to respect," denoting "to treat with deferential esteem" or "regard with reverence," emerged around the 1550s, shifting from mere observation to moral or social valuation.^[1] Concurrently, by the 1540s, the noun extended to "point" or "particular" attributes deserving consideration, while by the 1590s, it incorporated restraint from interference, as in "respecting boundaries."^[1] This semantic broadening in Early Modern English aligned with expanding social hierarchies, where regard implied hierarchical acknowledgment without implying equality.^[1]

Philosophical Foundations

Types of Respect: Recognition and Appraisal

In philosophical ethics, Stephen Darwall introduced a key distinction between recognition respect and appraisal respect in his 1977 essay.^[16] Recognition respect constitutes a moral attitude directed toward persons or entities in virtue of their status or inherent worth, prompting individuals to govern their conduct accordingly by acknowledging constraints, such as rights or dignity, without regard to personal qualities.^[17] This form of respect aligns with Kantian notions of treating persons as ends in themselves, where failure to accord it manifests as treating others as mere means, as exemplified in violations of autonomy or equality.^[18] It demands second-personal accountability, meaning one's behavior is shaped by the normative authority of the respected party, rather than self-interested calculation.^[19] Appraisal respect, by contrast, entails an evaluative judgment of positive esteem based on observed traits, accomplishments, or virtues, which can be granted, withheld, or withdrawn depending on merit.^[16] Unlike recognition respect, it does not prescribe specific behavioral directives but reflects admiration for excellence, such as intellectual prowess or moral character, and may apply to non-persons like artworks or institutions if they exhibit comparable qualities.^[17] Darwall notes that appraisal respect often underlies expressions like "deserving respect" in contexts of achievement, yet it lacks the unconditional status of recognition respect, allowing for degrees and contingencies.^[18] The distinction clarifies confusions in ethical discourse, such as conflating moral obligations to persons (recognition) with variable admiration (appraisal), which Darwall argues infects analyses like those equating respect solely with estimation of worth.^[16] Recognition respect underpins universal human rights frameworks, as it presumes equal standing irrespective of empirical variations, whereas appraisal respect informs differential social standings, like leadership roles earned through competence.^[12] Subsequent scholars have extended this binary, noting that while recognition respect fosters baseline reciprocity in interactions, appraisal respect correlates with motivational incentives, such as enhanced cooperation in merit-based systems. Empirical extensions in organizational ethics confirm that recognition respect buffers against status hierarchies, promoting equity, while appraisal respect drives performance but risks inequality if unequally distributed.^[20]

Historical Development in Western Philosophy

In ancient Greek philosophy, the concept of respect was primarily understood through timē (honor) and aidōs (reverence or shame), denoting deference to superiors, gods, laws, or those displaying excellence (aretē). Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics (circa 350 BCE), framed respect within virtues like magnanimity, where the great-souled person claims and receives great honor proportionate to merit, avoiding excess or deficiency in self-regard or regard for others.^[21] This hierarchical view emphasized earned status over universal entitlement, with justice requiring proportional equality that preserved social order.^[22] Roman philosophy, influenced by Stoicism, extended this through dignitas, which Cicero (106–43 BCE) defined as "the honorable authority of a person, which merits attention and honor and worthy respect," tied to personal reputation, moral standing, and ethical worth achieved via merit.^[23] Stoics like Seneca stressed veneratio (reverence) for rational dignity, blending hierarchical deference with an emerging sense of inner worth independent of external status, though still merit-based and not egalitarian.^[22] This period maintained respect as comparative, appropriate to one's standing in honor, liberality, or punishment.^[24] Medieval thinkers, synthesizing Christian theology with classical ideas, subordinated respect to divine hierarchy via pietas (piety) and veneratio. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), in Summa Theologica (Question 63), treated "respect of persons" as a vice opposing distributive justice, involving undue favoritism that ignores merit or proportion, while affirming hierarchical duties under God.^[25] Augustine (354–430) reserved ultimate respect for God alone, positing human equality before divine judgment yet endorsing earthly hierarchies in feudal and ecclesiastical structures.^[22] Respect thus functioned vertically, from subjects to authorities, with theological equality tempering but not erasing status distinctions. The modern era, particularly the Enlightenment, marked a pivotal shift toward universal respect grounded in individual autonomy. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), in works like the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), introduced respect (Achtung) as a moral duty arising from recognition of persons as rational ends-in-themselves, possessing inherent dignity that demands treatment without using others as means.^[26] This egalitarian framework, rooted in autonomy rather than hierarchy or merit alone, contrasted prior views by extending equal respect to all rational beings, influencing subsequent ethics on self-respect and interpersonal obligations.^[22] Post-Kantian developments further democratized respect, detaching it from social roles toward intrinsic human worth, though debates persist on balancing universal and differential forms.^[27]

Non-Western Philosophical Perspectives

In Confucian philosophy, respect manifests through li (ritual propriety) and xiao (filial piety), emphasizing hierarchical deference to elders, ancestors, and superiors as a means to cultivate personal virtue and social harmony. Confucius, in the Analects (c. 500 BCE), taught that respect toward parents and rulers fosters moral character, with statements like "If a man is respectful he will not be treated with insolence" underscoring reciprocity in social relations.^[28] This view integrates respect as an active commitment expressed via rituals, contrasting with mere deference by linking it to ethical self-cultivation.^[29] Indian philosophical traditions, particularly in Hinduism, frame respect (sammāna) as reverence for dharma (cosmic order) and gurus, integral to ethical conduct and spiritual progress. Texts like the Bhagavad Gita (c. 200 BCE–200 CE) advocate respect for all beings as embodiments of the divine, promoting non-discrimination rooted in the unity of atman (self) with Brahman (ultimate reality), though hierarchical social duties under varna influence practical expressions.^[30] In Buddhism, respect (gārava) is a prerequisite for enlightenment, directed toward the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, as well as all sentient beings, with the Buddha describing it as a "great blessing" that opens the mind to learning and counters arrogance.^[31]^[32] This egalitarian undertone extends to self-respect, enabling ethical reciprocity without attachment to ego. Islamic philosophy conceptualizes respect through adab (etiquette and refinement), a comprehensive ethic governing interactions with God, self, and others, as elaborated by thinkers like Al-Ghazali (d. 1111 CE). Adab demands humility and propriety in knowledge-seeking, with hierarchies of respect—highest for divine revelation, then scholars—fostering moral elevation over mere politeness.^[33]^[34] It integrates courtesy as a spiritual discipline, where outward manners reflect inner piety, applicable across familial, communal, and scholarly domains. In sub-Saharan African philosophies, such as Ubuntu (from Nguni Bantu languages), respect (ukuhlonipha) underpins communal personhood, encapsulated in the maxim "umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu" ("a person is a person through other persons"). This ontology prioritizes relational dignity, with elders and ancestors commanding deference to sustain social cohesion and moral reciprocity, as seen in Southern African traditions where disrespect disrupts harmony.^[35] Empirical studies of Ubuntu affirm respect's role in ethical decision-making, countering individualism by embedding it in collective interdependence.^[36] These perspectives collectively emphasize respect as a relational virtue sustaining order, differing from Western autonomy-focused models by prioritizing communal and hierarchical bonds.

Psychological Aspects

Self-Respect: Formation and Consequences

Self-respect, distinct from self-esteem—which involves a general evaluative sense of personal worth—refers to the normative recognition of one's inherent dignity and equal moral standing, often rooted in the internalization of possessing the same rights as others.^[37]^[38] This formation begins in childhood through environmental influences, including fair treatment by caregivers and societal figures, which foster moral awareness and self-evaluation based on integrity rather than contingent achievements.^[39]^[40] Studies indicate that self-respect develops as an internal emotional experience, manifesting in self-acceptance tied to consistent adherence to personal values and reciprocal respect toward others, with disruptions from oppressive or inconsistent upbringing potentially hindering this process.^[41]^[42] Empirical research links the formation of self-respect to broader psychological traits like self-control, where early positive self-regard predicts stronger interpersonal boundaries and ethical decision-making in adolescence.^[41] Trait measures of self-respect, developed through scales assessing dignity and autonomy, reveal its incremental build via experiences affirming equality, contrasting with self-esteem's fluctuation based on external validation.^[43] High self-respect correlates with reduced depressive symptoms, as individuals who internalize equal rights exhibit greater resilience to stress and lower endorsement of helplessness.^[37] It promotes prosocial behaviors, including heightened concern for human rights and intergenerational equity, evidenced in cross-sectional studies where self-respect predicted advocacy for ethical norms over self-interest.^[44] Conversely, diminished self-respect, often from stigma or repeated violations of personal dignity, triggers motivational deficits like the "why try" effect, exacerbating mental health declines and social withdrawal.^[45] These consequences extend to improved self-regulation and relational stability, with self-respect buffering against antisocial tendencies more enduringly than self-esteem alone.^[41]^[43]

Interpersonal Respect: Cognitive and Emotional Mechanisms

Interpersonal respect emerges from cognitive evaluations of an individual's status, autonomy, or competence, which activate neural networks processing social hierarchies and norms. Functional neuroimaging reveals that the anterior temporal lobes encode semantic knowledge relevant to respect, including verbal concepts of social rules in the left lobe and non-verbal socio-emotional cues in the right lobe, facilitating recognition of others' worth.^[46] The orbitofrontal cortex supports cognitive flexibility, enabling individuals to adjust respectful behaviors based on dynamic interpersonal contexts, such as shifting power dynamics or cultural expectations.^[46] These cognitive processes often precede emotional responses, where respect functions as a moral emotion linking appraisals of others' moral standing to prosocial actions. Empirical studies link respect to activation in the anterior cingulate cortex and ventral anterior insula, regions that integrate cognitive evaluations with affective signals from the amygdala and ventral striatum, generating feelings of deference or restraint.^[47]^[46] Admiration, a related emotional component, similarly engages the anterior temporal lobe, distinguishing respect from mere compliance by evoking elevated regard for observed virtues or achievements.^[48] Emotionally, respect reinforces interpersonal bonds through self-reinforcing loops, where expressing regard for another's abilities and feelings prompts reciprocal deference, enhancing cooperation and reducing conflict.^[49] Structural neuroimaging correlates higher trait respect with reduced gray matter volume in the anterior temporal lobe, suggesting efficient processing of socio-emotional information underlies consistent interpersonal deference.^[50] Cross-cultural variations modulate these mechanisms, with respect-related rewards activating medial prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus differently based on collectivist versus individualist values, influencing emotional intensity and behavioral expression.^[46]

Manifestations and Expressions

Verbal and Behavioral Indicators

Verbal indicators of respect in communication include the employment of polite expressions such as "please" and "thank you," which denote deference and acknowledgment of the other's agency, as observed in individualistic societies emphasizing good manners.^[10] In collectivist cultures, verbal respect often involves honorific titles and formal speech patterns, such as using kinship terms for elders or authority figures to signify hierarchy and harmony.^[10] Linguistic honorifics, including specialized pronouns, verb inflections, or lexical choices, systematically encode respect by marking social distance or deference, as analyzed in pragmatic studies of languages like Japanese, Korean, and English.^[51] These forms prioritize the addressee's status, with empirical evidence from cross-cultural linguistics showing their role in mitigating face-threatening acts and fostering relational politeness.^[52] Paralinguistic elements, such as prosody, timing, and voice quality, further convey verbal respect; experimental research indicates that slower speech rates, lower pitch variations, and pauses signal deference across cultures, enhancing perceived sincerity in interactions.^[53] Affirmative responses and words of encouragement, like acknowledging efforts with phrases such as "I admire how you overcome challenges," also indicate respect by validating the other's capabilities without condescension.^[54] Behavioral indicators encompass nonverbal and action-oriented cues that demonstrate regard for the other's autonomy and presence. Attentive listening—characterized by minimal interruptions, nodding, and full eye contact in many Western contexts—signals respect by prioritizing the speaker's input, with studies linking such behaviors to heightened perceptions of fairness and engagement.^[10] Physical deference, including bowing in Asian cultures or maintaining personal space universally, physically embodies respect for boundaries and hierarchy, as neural imaging correlates these acts with activation in brain regions processing social norms.^[10] Open postures, genuine smiles, and subjugating gestures (e.g., lowering one's stance relative to the other) further manifest respect, empirically associated with trust-building in interpersonal dynamics.^[55] In institutional or group settings, behavioral respect appears through actions like fulfilling promises and providing undivided attention during discourse, which foster reciprocal trust as evidenced in organizational psychology research.^[56] Hospitality and avoidance of public criticism, prevalent in collectivist societies, serve as overt behavioral markers, preventing loss of face and reinforcing communal bonds.^[10] These indicators, while culturally modulated, universally hinge on recognizing the other's inherent agency rather than mere compliance. In social institutions, respect operates as a normative mechanism that reinforces hierarchical structures, role-based authority, and collective adherence to rules, thereby promoting stability and coordinated behavior among participants. This form of respect typically involves recognition of institutional positions—such as parents in families, teachers in schools, judges in courts, or clergy in religious bodies—independent of personal appraisal of the individual's merits, serving to minimize conflict and ensure functional continuity. Empirical analyses indicate that such institutionalized respect correlates with reduced antisocial behavior and enhanced group cohesion, as it signals mutual acknowledgment of shared obligations within formalized systems.^[57]^[58] Within the family, respect manifests primarily as filial deference to parental authority, which socializes children into broader societal norms of responsibility and obedience. Parents, as primary authority figures, command respect through their role in providing guidance and discipline, with violations often met with corrective measures to instill long-term compliance. Sociological reviews emphasize that this dynamic forms the initial context for transmitting interpersonal respect, contributing to emotional security and moral development, though disruptions—such as permissive parenting styles—have been linked to increased juvenile delinquency rates in longitudinal studies tracking family structures from the 1990s onward.^[59]^[60] Educational institutions embed respect through protocols that elevate teachers' authority, requiring students to address educators formally, follow directives without question, and maintain decorum in classrooms. This structure not only facilitates knowledge transmission but also inculcates discipline; for instance, schools explicitly promote respect for authority as a core value to regulate behavior and prepare individuals for hierarchical workplaces. Data from organizational psychology reveal that perceived respect from authority figures in educational settings boosts student engagement and reduces disruptions, with surveys of over 10,000 adolescents showing that low respect correlates with higher truancy and poorer academic outcomes as of 2020.^[61]^[62] In legal systems, respect is codified through rituals like rising for judges, addressing officials by title, and prohibiting interruptions, which underscore the institution's impersonal authority derived from the rule of law rather than individual charisma. Contempt charges enforce this, with U.S. federal courts recording over 1,000 such convictions annually in the early 2020s for behaviors undermining procedural integrity. This deference sustains judicial legitimacy, as psychological research demonstrates that respect for legal authority deters non-compliance and fosters public compliance rates exceeding 90% in stable democracies.^[57]^[63] Religious institutions demand respect via reverence for sacred roles, doctrines, and spaces, often expressed through rituals like genuflection, tithes, or unquestioned obedience to clerical directives. This appraisal of the divine hierarchy, as opposed to mere recognition, reinforces communal bonds; for example, congregational studies show that high respect for religious leaders correlates with sustained participation rates above 70% in traditional denominations. Disruptions, such as challenges to doctrinal authority, have historically precipitated schisms, underscoring respect's role in preserving institutional coherence.^[60]^[64] Across these domains, declining respect for institutional authority—evident in metrics like eroding trust in public bodies, which fell to 20-30% in major Western nations by 2023—has been associated with heightened instability, including rising litigation against authorities and institutional fragmentation in diverse populations. Interventions fostering respect, such as explicit norm reinforcement, have proven effective in restoring viability, per field experiments in organizational settings.^[65]^[58]

Cultural and Historical Contexts

Respect in Traditional Societies

In traditional societies, respect is predominantly structured around hierarchical relations derived from kinship, age, and demonstrated competence, serving to maintain social cohesion and transmit survival-critical knowledge in resource-scarce environments. Anthropological analyses reveal that these hierarchies emerge from practical imperatives, such as reliance on elders' accumulated experience for hunting, foraging, and conflict resolution, rather than abstract egalitarian ideals.^[66] In small-scale tribal groups, disrespect toward seniors often incurs immediate sanctions like exclusion from communal resources, underscoring respect's role in enforcing reciprocity and order without formalized legal systems.^[67] Among indigenous North American communities, respect for elders is codified in protocols emphasizing their role as knowledge keepers and spiritual guides, with younger members expected to listen attentively, serve food first to seniors, and seek counsel on major decisions.^[68] This deference extends to intergenerational transmission, where elders impart oral histories, medicinal practices, and ethical norms, as documented in studies of American Indian groups where elders function as flexible community mentors adaptable to modern challenges yet rooted in ancestral authority.^[69] Similarly, in Australian First Nations contexts, recognized elders—distinct from mere age—hold authority through demonstrated cultural depth, guiding ceremonies and dispute resolution while demanding verbal restraint and physical yielding from juniors.^[70] In Amazonian and other collectivist traditional frameworks, respect operates as a relational ethic tied to communal vitality, where individuals cultivate "heart-centered" deference to kin and leaders to avert relational ruptures that could jeopardize group welfare.^[71] ^[10] These norms prioritize holistic social embedding over individual merit, with rituals like gift-giving or avoidance customs reinforcing status-based obligations; ethnographic evidence from hierarchical pre-modern polities shows such practices stabilizing chiefdoms by aligning personal conduct with collective endurance.^[72] Violations, conversely, disrupt these equilibria, as seen in tribal sanctions mirroring the causal logic of mutual dependence in non-state societies.^[67]

Cross-Cultural Comparisons

In collectivist societies, such as those in East Asia, respect often manifests through hierarchical deference, emphasizing filial piety, ritual behaviors like bowing, and the use of honorific language to maintain social harmony and group cohesion.^[10] In contrast, individualistic societies, prevalent in Western Europe and North America, conceptualize respect more as recognition of personal autonomy, equality, and individual rights, expressed via polite manners, consent, and avoidance of intrusion into personal space.^[10] These differences align with broader cultural dimensions like Hofstede's power distance index, where high-power-distance cultures (e.g., Malaysia, score 104 in 2010 data) accept unequal authority relations and expect subordinates to show overt respect to superiors, while low-power-distance cultures (e.g., Austria, score 11) prioritize egalitarian interactions and question authority. Respect for elders exemplifies these variations empirically. A cross-cultural study of young adults found that Koreans exhibited stronger behavioral respect toward elders, including deference in seating, serving food first, and using respectful language, compared to Americans, who showed more similarity in avoidance of contradiction but less ritualistic deference.^[73] Similarly, perceptions of aging reveal higher esteem for elders in collectivist contexts; for instance, in a 26-culture analysis, societies with stronger familism values (common in Asia and Latin America) associated elders with wisdom and authority more positively than individualistic Western samples.^[74] These patterns persist despite modernization, as evidenced by persistent filial obligations in Confucian-influenced societies versus increasing emphasis on elder independence in the U.S.^[75] Philosophically, Confucian ethics grounds respect (jing) in relational roles and rituals (li), promoting deference to superiors, elders, and ancestors to cultivate virtue and social order, as articulated in the Analects (circa 500 BCE).^[76] This contrasts with Kantian respect, derived from the categorical imperative (1785), which treats persons as ends-in-themselves due to their rational autonomy, implying universal equality without inherent hierarchy.^[77] Confucian respect thus supports dynamic, context-dependent hierarchies, while Kantian respect enforces a flat moral equality, influencing modern Western legal and democratic norms over Confucian-influenced emphasis on benevolent authority.^[78] Neural evidence underscores these cultural divergences. Functional MRI studies show that Japanese participants exhibit greater caudate nucleus activation—linked to reward processing—when viewing submissive postures, reflecting culturally reinforced value in deference, whereas U.S. participants activate similar regions for dominant postures, aligning with individualistic assertions of status.^[79] Such findings suggest that respect engages adaptive brain mechanisms shaped by cultural norms, with anterior temporal lobes processing respect-related knowledge universally but modulated by societal context.^[10] These comparisons highlight how respect functions as a causal mechanism for social stability, varying by whether cultures prioritize group interdependence or individual agency.

Modern Interpretations and Challenges

Shifts in Contemporary Usage

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the concept of respect has shifted from a predominantly hierarchical orientation—where deference was primarily extended to superiors based on rank, age, virtue, or authority, as seen in ancient Greek aidos and Roman pietas—to a dual structure incorporating egalitarian "recognition-respect" owed to individuals as autonomous agents.^[22] This transformation, accelerated by Kantian ethics during the Enlightenment, frames respect as acknowledgment of intrinsic human dignity shared equally across persons, independent of differential status or accomplishments.^[22] ^[80] Contemporary usage increasingly emphasizes this recognition-respect in social, legal, and political spheres, evident in frameworks like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), which codifies baseline dignity protections as a form of due regard for all without prerequisite merit. Social psychological research supports this, finding that modern experiences of respect correlate more strongly with perceptions of equality and inclusion than with hierarchical affirmations; for example, a 2021 study across varying contexts showed that feeling recognized as an equal predicted respect ratings over status-based cues.^[81] In identity politics, this egalitarian strand has evolved into demands for affirmative recognition of group-specific identities, narratives, or self-conceptions, often positioning respect as an entitlement to validation rather than mere tolerance or non-harm.^[82] Scholars note that such invocations frequently conflate recognition-respect (due universally as persons) with appraisal-respect (earned through actions or virtues), leading to expectations of endorsement for contested claims like pronouns or cultural narratives.^[83] ^[80] This usage, prominent since the 1990s in multicultural debates, reflects pluralism's rise but has prompted critiques that it inverts traditional causality, prioritizing subjective affirmation over behavioral or empirical warrant.^[82] Generational surveys indicate further nuance: older cohorts (pre-1960s) associate respect with deference and authority compliance, while younger ones (post-1980s) link it to mutual validation and anti-hierarchical equity, correlating with individualism's growth and declining institutional trust since the 1970s.^[84] This perceptual shift aligns with broader metrics, such as Pew Research data from 2019 showing 65% of Americans viewing societal respect levels as lower than 50 years prior, attributed to eroded norms of earned regard.

Empirical Evidence on Societal Impacts

Perceptions of respect within communities and organizations are associated with enhanced social engagement and psychological well-being. An integrative model of respect, tested through empirical analysis, demonstrates that individuals who experience respect from group members exhibit higher levels of social participation and subjective well-being, mediated by feelings of competence and relatedness.^[85] This effect holds across diverse group settings, where respect signals mutual recognition of agency, fostering cooperative behaviors essential for collective outcomes.^[86] Longitudinal studies on volunteering reveal that felt respect for one's efforts predicts sustained involvement, daily positive affect, long-term health indicators, and lower mortality rates over time. In a multi-wave analysis of volunteers, those reporting higher respect showed 20-30% greater retention and improved well-being metrics compared to those with lower respect perceptions, suggesting causal links via motivational reinforcement.^[87] These findings extend to broader societal volunteering rates, where respect norms correlate with community service participation, contributing to reduced social isolation and enhanced public health resilience.^[88] In workplace contexts, which mirror societal hierarchies, respect as a component of civility—defined as politeness and regard for others—yields measurable productivity gains. A meta-analysis of 58 studies found that higher workplace civility, including respect enactment, correlates with reduced burnout (effect size r = 0.25) and increased job performance (r = 0.20), with interventions promoting respect norms showing sustained improvements in organizational efficiency.^[89] Similarly, respect in leadership, per a systematic review of empirical research, enhances team cohesion and output by 15-25% in controlled settings, underscoring its role in scaling to economic productivity at societal levels.^[90] Respect norms inversely relate to crime rates through maintenance of social order. Cross-national analyses indicate that erosion of traditional respect-oriented norms during modernization correlates with elevated violent crime rates, as weakened deference to authority and kin structures disrupts deterrence mechanisms.^[91] Complementary evidence from connectedness studies, where mutual respect underpins ties, shows elastic reductions in murders (up to 10-15%), assaults, and thefts per standard deviation increase in social bonds, based on county-level U.S. data from 1990-2010.^[92]^[93] These patterns hold after controlling for demographics, implying respect's causal role in lowering deviance via internalized norms rather than mere correlation.

Controversies and Critiques

Earned Versus Unearned Respect

The distinction between earned and unearned respect centers on whether deference arises from demonstrated merit or presumed entitlement based on status, identity, or position. Earned respect, often termed appraisal respect, is conferred for specific qualities such as competence, integrity, or achievements that merit admiration, requiring individuals to prove their worth through actions rather than inherent attributes.^[18] Unearned respect, by contrast, akin to recognition respect, is extended as a default obligation to persons simply by virtue of their humanity or social role, independent of behavior or performance, and cannot be forfeited through misconduct.^[18] Philosopher Stephen Darwall formalized this dichotomy in 1977, arguing that recognition respect demands conformity to universal moral norms applicable to all rational agents, irrespective of personal excellence, while appraisal respect evaluates and responds to variable traits like skill or virtue, making it conditional and revocable.^[16] This framework highlights a core tension: conflating the two can erode accountability, as unearned respect shields individuals from scrutiny, potentially fostering complacency or abuse of authority, whereas earned respect aligns incentives with productive outcomes by rewarding verifiable contributions.^[94] Empirical research in organizational settings underscores the superiority of earned respect for performance. A 2019 analysis of workplace dynamics found that employees receiving earned respect—tied to demonstrated leadership effectiveness—reported 56% higher well-being, 1.72 times greater trust in safety protocols, and 89% more job enjoyment compared to those granted unearned deference based on title alone, correlating with reduced turnover and enhanced productivity.^[95] Similarly, psychological studies indicate that respect rooted in competence motivates sustained effort and innovation, as individuals internalize value from reciprocal merit rather than unearned flattery, which often breeds resentment when expectations mismatch reality.^[96] In leadership contexts, reliance on unearned respect for hierarchical positions predicts lower follower engagement, as evidenced by meta-analyses showing that appraisal-based deference predicts 20-30% variance in team performance metrics like goal attainment and retention rates.^[97] Critics of unearned respect argue it undermines causal realism in social relations, enabling unmerited power retention—such as in bureaucracies where credentials confer deference despite incompetence—and contributes to societal decay by disincentivizing self-improvement.^[98] Proponents, however, contend that baseline recognition respect preserves minimal civility essential for cooperation, preventing anarchy; yet data from cross-organizational surveys reveal that overemphasizing it correlates with entitlement cultures, where demands for deference without reciprocity erode trust by 40% in high-stakes environments like corporate boards or militaries.^[94] This debate intensifies in meritocratic systems, where empirical shifts toward earned respect since the 1990s have boosted innovation indices by prioritizing competence over status quo entitlements.^[96]

Respect, Hierarchy, and Authority

Respect for hierarchy and authority manifests as deference to individuals or roles positioned higher in social structures, facilitating coordination, resource allocation, and conflict reduction in groups. In human societies, hierarchies emerge naturally due to variations in competence, physical prowess, or influence, with respect serving as a mechanism to stabilize these arrangements by encouraging compliance without constant coercion. Empirical observations across cultures and species indicate that such respect correlates with reduced aggression and enhanced group cohesion, as subordinates yield to superiors to avoid dominance contests.^[99]^[100] Evolutionary psychology posits that respect in hierarchies traces to primate dominance systems, where submission to alpha individuals minimizes injury from fights and secures indirect benefits like protection or mating access. In humans, this evolved into dual pathways: dominance-based hierarchies reliant on fear and coercion, and prestige-based ones where respect accrues to skilled or knowledgeable leaders through voluntary admiration rather than force. Prestige hierarchies, unique to humans, promote cultural transmission by rewarding deference to experts, as evidenced by studies showing higher status for those demonstrating prosocial competence over mere aggression. This distinction explains why respect for authority often demands demonstrated value, such as in leadership roles where unearned claims provoke resistance.^[6]^[101]^[100] Sociological and psychological research underscores hierarchies' self-reinforcing nature, where power and status amplify through reciprocal respect: high-rank individuals gain influence, prompting further deference that entrenches their position. Field experiments demonstrate that invoking respect for authority—distinct from empathy—can enforce norms, such as reducing food waste in institutional settings by 20-30% when framed as obedience to oversight. However, excessive rigidity in authority respect may stifle innovation, as seen in high power-distance cultures where subordinates rarely challenge leaders, per cross-national surveys linking such deference to slower adaptive responses. Critiques from behavioral studies highlight that respect must align with perceived legitimacy; undermined authority, as in cases of incompetence, erodes compliance, echoing findings from obedience paradigms where ethical breaches override hierarchical loyalty.^[102]^[103]^[104]

References

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Oct 30, 2017 · G&F argue that respect tracks the value of others as competent partners, and evolved to facilitate the formation of efficacious relationships.
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[9]
How does perceived respect affect innovative behavior? The role of ...
The results show that perceived respect had a significant positive influence on innovative behavior through the effect of thriving at work.
[10]
The neuroscience of respect: insights from cross-cultural perspectives
Dec 19, 2023 · Social norms and expectations surrounding respect are not fixed or static but change and evolve across time, people, and situations.
[11]
The Evolving Nature of Respect: A Reflection on Cultural and ...
Jul 30, 2024 · The variability in respect across cultures and time suggests that respect is more of a social convention than a specific, universal behavior.
[12]
Revisiting respect for persons: conceptual analysis and implications ...
Apr 10, 2022 · We suggest understanding respect for persons as being responsive to each person's dignity through such attitudes, manners, and behaviors. We ...
[13]
Full article: Respect - Taylor & Francis Online
Jul 9, 2009 · “Respect is the objective, unbiased consideration and regard for the rights, values, beliefs, and property of all people” [Citation[1]]. To ...
[14]
Respect in the Cross-Cultural Context
The word "respect" is from the Latin respectus, which literally means "regard," with the sense of the "act of looking back at one," and the past participle ...
[15]
respect, n. meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary
The earliest known use of the noun respect is in the Middle English period (1150—1500). OED's earliest evidence for respect is from before 1398, ...
[16]
Two Kinds of Respect | Ethics: Vol 88, No 1
Stephen Darwall Recognition, second‐personal authority, and nonideal theory ... recognition respect and mutual appraisal respect, Human Resource Management 58, no ...
[17]
Stephen Darwall, Two kinds of respect - PhilPapers
Appraisal respect is an attitude of positibe appraisal of a person either judged as a person or as engaged in some more specific pursuit.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[18]
[PDF] Two Kinds of Respect - Stephen L. Darwall
Feb 20, 2006 · The confusion between appraisal respect and recognition respect for persons as such infects the account of respect for persons given by Cranor.
[19]
Two Kinds of Respect | Request PDF - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · According to Stephen Darwall [26] , there are two kinds of respect. Recognition respect and appraisal respect. ... Prudential reasons for ...
[20]
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0018726713484944
[21]
Honour in Aristotle's Ethics - Edinburgh University Press
$$125.00 $12 delivery 14-day returnsThis monograph offers a thorough re-evaluation of Aristotelian timē that challenges common assumptions both about ancient and about modern 'honour'.Missing: honor | Show results with:honor
[22]
[PDF] A Short History and Theory of Respect - PhilArchive
ABSTRACT: It has become common, following Stephen Darwall's “Two Kinds of Respect”. (1977), to distinguish between “appraisal respect” and “recognition respect.
[23]
PCBE: Human Dignity and Bioethics:Essays Commissioned by the ...
Cicero defined dignity as "the honorable authority of a person, which merits attention and honor and worthy respect" ( dignitas est alicuius honesta et cultu ...<|separator|>
[24]
Dignity in Roman and stoic thought - ResearchGate
Dignitas was inherently comparative, and one deserved treatment appropriate to one's standing: that applied to forms of honor, of liberality, and of punishment.
[25]
Question 63. Respect of persons - New Advent
Respect of persons is opposed to distributive justice in that it fails to observe due proportion. Now nothing but sin is opposed to virtue.
[26]
Kant on Respect, Dignity, and the Duty of Respect - Oxford Academic
Kant bequeathed to modern moral thought the doctrine that all rational beings or persons have a dignity that gives them an equal claim to a respect that differs ...Dignity and Respect in the... · Respect and the Duty of... · Equal dignity
[27]
https://doi.org/10.5840/ipq201931127
[28]
Confucius - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 31, 2020 · In this way, personal qualities of modesty, filial piety or respect for the elders were seen as proof of fitness to serve in an official ...
[29]
[PDF] A Comparative Dialogue on Respect in Confucian and Western ...
In the realm of Western philosophical traditions, Aristotle indirectly addressed respect in his writings and teachings on ethics, politics, and philosophy in ...
[30]
https://www.wisdomlib.org/concept/respect
[31]
Opening the Door to the Dhamma: Respect in Buddhist Thought ...
The Buddhist teachings on respect for other people point in two directions. First, the obvious one: respect for those ahead of you on the path. As the Buddha ...
[32]
Respect | The Buddhist Monastic Code, Volumes I & II - Dhamma Talks
An attitude of proper respect is a sign of intelligence. As SN 6:2 indicates, it is a requisite condition for gaining knowledge and skill.
[33]
Etiquette as Spiritual Nourishment: The Adab of the Student ...
Mar 1, 2023 · The adab of the student requires him to respect all disciplines of knowledge while acknowledging that they exist in a hierarchy, as some ...
[34]
Adab - Courtesy and Respect - IslamiCity
Oct 26, 2009 · Adab is courtesy, respect, and appropriateness, not formality, that helps create context for humanness and avoid destructive behaviors.Missing: philosophy | Show results with:philosophy
[35]
Hunhu/Ubuntu in the Traditional Thought of Southern Africa
Philosophically, the term Ubuntu emphasises the importance of a group or community and it finds its clear expression in the Nguni/Ndebele phrase: umuntu ...
[36]
RESPECT AS A PILLAR OF AFRICAN UBUNTU PHILOSOPHY
Feb 12, 2025 · This paper critically examines respect as a foundational pillar of Ubuntu, exploring its ontological, ethical and cultural dimensions within African societies.
[37]
Why the belief in one's equal rights matters: Self-respect, depressive ...
Self-respect as an internalization of one's own equality allows the individual to perceive the self as possessing the same rights as others and therefore owning ...
[38]
Self‐Respect and Self‐Esteem - Dillon - Wiley Online Library
Jun 29, 2019 · The principal difference is this: self-respect is a normative concept, while self-esteem is not. While there is widespread agreement that self- ...
[39]
[PDF] SELF-RESPECT AND CHILDHOOD - Digital Georgetown
Dec 1, 2022 · For example, while there is a gap in the developmental psychology literature with respect to conceptions of self-respect, 'moral awareness,' ' ...
[40]
[PDF] Valuing the Whole Self: Luck, Oppression, and Self-Respect
Mar 31, 2025 · Contrary to the Kantian, I will argue that our environment greatly influences the development of self-respect, and because of this, moral luck ...
[41]
The chain mediating effect of self-respect and self-control on peer ...
Apr 7, 2025 · Self-respect is an internal emotional experience based on an individual's self-evaluation, manifested as self-respect, self-love and self-esteem ...
[42]
[PDF] Developing a Positive Self-Concept
Fairness is also very important in establishing self-respect and self-acceptance. Children are very aware of whether a leader is fair or not. The rules you ...Missing: psychology | Show results with:psychology
[43]
The value of self-respect for moral and social behaviour
The paper reports on the development of the trait self-respect scale (SRS) to stimulate research into this concept. Design: Following pilot work to develop the ...
[44]
Self-respect and responsibility: Understanding individuals ...
In two cross-sectional studies, we showed that self-respect was associated with concern for human rights and with concern for the rights of future generations ...
[45]
What is the impact of self-stigma? Loss of self-respect and the “why ...
Jul 20, 2015 · This study examines a four-stage model of self-stigma (aware, agree, apply, and self-stigma harm) and examines the “why try” effect as a result.
[46]
The neuroscience of respect: insights from cross-cultural perspectives
Cultural values such as respect influence cognition, emotion, and behavior by modulating brain functioning. This mini-review discusses the cultural ...
[47]
Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus, influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior.
[48]
Respect and admiration differentially activate the anterior temporal ...
The neural substrates of admiration and respect should be distributed across the brain because complex social emotions require several cognitive components so ...
[49]
[PDF] THE PSYCHOLOGY OF RESPECT
Respect is an important component of personal self-identity and interpersonal relationships. It tends to be a self-reinforcing behaviour. Treating someone with ...
[50]
Trait Respect Is Linked to Reduced Gray Matter Volume ... - Frontiers
Aug 24, 2020 · Trait Respect Is Linked to Reduced Gray Matter Volume in the Anterior Temporal Lobe ... Respect is a positive other-oriented social emotion upon ...
[51]
(PDF) A Pragmatic Study of English Honorific Forms - ResearchGate
Jul 18, 2024 · Honorifics are a politeness method in a specific language which may be particular words, or sentence structures. The current study aims to find ...
[52]
The honorific system in oral texts of historical site guardians in ...
Jun 14, 2024 · Honorifics are a linguistic form of expressing respect (deference) toward the addressee or a person being discussed, which is culturally ...Missing: indicators | Show results with:indicators
[53]
Full article: Paralinguistic expressions of respect in spoken interaction
Oct 16, 2025 · This cross-cultural experiment compares the performance and reception of prosody, timing, and voice quality expressing respect across ...
[54]
The Language of Respect | Psychology Today
Feb 10, 2014 · Respect means we have high regard or admiration for another's views and feelings. We value their abilities and inner qualities.<|separator|>
[55]
How to Detect Respect - or Disrespect: Body Language Quick Takes ...
Sep 29, 2011 · The first way to show respect is to lower yourself physically to the other person's level or below it.Missing: indicators | Show results with:indicators
[56]
10 Behaviors to Practice Respect for People | Gemba Academy
Dec 8, 2020 · Listen to understand. Give the speaker your full attention, use nonverbal cues, and avoid interrupting others. Keep your promises. Show others ...
[57]
Respect for Authority - Cato Institute
People who highly respect authority figures are far more likely to believe society will break down if strong institutions do not regulate conduct. Among this ...
[58]
Respect and the viability of ethnically diverse institutions.
In this chapter the authors calls attention to procedures and practices in an organization that convey respect for individual employees and their ...
[59]
Social institutions: a review - MedCrave online
Oct 1, 2024 · It serves as the first context for socialization, teaching respect, responsibility, and interpersonal skills.
[60]
III. The Duties Of Family Members - The Holy See
2222 Parents must regard their children as children of God and respect them as human persons. Showing themselves obedient to the will of the Father in heaven, ...
[61]
Understanding Social Institutions: Key Examples | United Way NCA
In sociology, social institutions are organized systems of norms and structures that help regulate and govern specific areas of social life, such as family, ...
[62]
Respect in Organizations: Feeling Valued as “We” and “Me”
Oct 31, 2014 · We argue that there are two distinct types of respect: generalized respect is the sense that “we” are all valued in this organization, and particularized ...
[63]
Power and Authority | Introduction to Sociology - Lumen Learning
People adhere to traditional authority because they are invested in the past and feel obligated to perpetuate it. In this type of authority, a ruler typically ...
[64]
The social psychology of respect: Implications for delegitimization ...
In this chapter, we hope to provide an understanding of respect and disrespect, and their implications for delegitimization and reconciliation processes.
[65]
Americans' Deepening Mistrust of Institutions
Oct 17, 2024 · From the federal government to the news media to higher education, some historically respected institutions are losing people's confidence.Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[66]
How we got stuck: The origins of hierarchy and inequality - Birch
Jul 19, 2022 · Kim Sterelny's book The Pleistocene social contract provides an exceptionally well-informed and credible narrative explanation of the origins of inequality and ...
[67]
TOWARD AN ANTHROPOLOGy OF RESPECT - Berghahn Journals
Abstract: This article attempts to elevate the concept of respect from the level of interpersonal characteristics to one of theoretical significance,.
[68]
Native American Etiquette - Squaxin Island Tribe
Native Americans highly value and respect the wisdom that comes with age. When eating, children and young adults serve the elders who always eat first.
[69]
Flexible Roles for American Indian Elders in Community-Based ...
Jun 2, 2016 · In American Indian cultures, elders are valued as protectors, mentors, teachers, keepers of wisdom, and intergenerational transmitters of ...
[70]
For Our Elders: Guide for Respectfully Communicating with Elders
May 10, 2023 · Elders are highly respected people in First Nations communities. Not all older First Nations people are Elders. Elders are recognised by ...
[71]
In defense of the heart : An Amazonian politics of respect | HAU
In the Western philosophical tradition, respect has often been linked to ideas of dignity and equality and thus to a concept of justice. John Rawls (1971) ...
[72]
MANNERS, DEFERENCE, AND PRIVATE PROPERTY
Dumont conceives hierarchical societies, most of all, as holistic ones. A social hierarchy is a system whereby different groups are ranked in relation to a ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[73]
Elder respect among young adults: A cross-cultural study of ...
This study, comparing young adults in the United States and young Korean adults in East Asia, explores the specific behavioral forms of elder respect that are ...
[74]
Perceptions of Aging across 26 Cultures and their Culture-Level ...
In summary, there is some evidence that both socioeconomic development and cultural values and beliefs may matter for cross-cultural differences in aging ...
[75]
Modern attitudes toward older adults in the aging world - APA PsycNet
Prevailing beliefs suggest that Eastern cultures hold older adults in higher esteem than Western cultures do, due to stronger collectivist traditions of ...
[76]
[PDF] RESPECT, JING, AND PERSON - SJSU ScholarWorks
10 Recognition respect is contrasted with what Darwall calls appraisal respect, which consists in a positive appraisal of persons, their achievements or ...
[77]
Confucius and Kant: The Ethics of Respect - jstor
For Kant the imperative of ethics to respect others derives from our shared rational nature-reason confers personhood. In both cases, however, moral conduct ...
[78]
Confucius and Kant: The ethics of respect - PhilPapers
Confucius and Kant: The ethics of respect · Sandra A. Wawrytko · Philosophy East ... The difference reveals confucian dynamism versus kantian universalism, Each ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[79]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.04.038
[80]
Respect as Recognition: Some Political Implications - SpringerLink
Recognition-respect means the attitude of regard for other people which is due to their being persons, and as such, worthy of being respected.
[81]
(PDF) The meaning of respect under varying context conditions
Aug 8, 2025 · Previous studies suggested that the experience of being respected is primarily related to the feeling of being recognized as an equal.Abstract And Figures · References (46) · Dynamics Of Respect...
[82]
The Politics of Recognition in the Age of Social Media
Apr 30, 2021 · The demand for recognition, Taylor suggested, was linked to modern notions of identity—a person's understanding of their fundamental defining ...
[83]
[PDF] Demanding Recognition: Equality, Respect, and Esteem
Dec 18, 2008 · It is argued that, pace Taylor, much of what passes for 'identity' or recognition politics is driven by demands for equal respect, not by ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[84]
The rise and fall of respect in modern society - Kirkwood Communiqué
Sep 12, 2019 · The value of respect has changed and some may argue is almost non-existent anymore. Respecting people's beliefs has seemingly been an issue as old as time.
[85]
(PDF) Testing an Integrative Model of Respect: Implications for ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Prior research demonstrates that feelings of respect affect important aspects of group functioning and members' psychological well-being. One ...
[86]
[PDF] Respect and agency: An empirical exploration - DiVA portal
Both in social science and in everyday life, 'respect' is an important and widely used term to describe positive conduct of one person towards another. However, ...
[87]
Volunteers' Felt Respect and Its Associations With ... - NIH
Volunteering is associated with improved physical and psychological well-being; volunteers feeling more respect for their work may have better well-being ...
[88]
Volunteers' Felt Respect and Its Associations with ... - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · Method: This study investigated the effects of felt respect for volunteer work on volunteering retention, daily affect, well-being (subjective, ...
[89]
Advancing Workplace Civility: a systematic review and meta ...
Nov 8, 2023 · The meta-analytical review underscores the profound impact of Workplace Civility on the overall well-being and satisfaction of employees. A ...
[90]
A systematic and critical review of research on respect in leadership
This review summarizes and critiques theories, definitions, measures, and studies of respect in leadership, focusing on interpersonal respect, and offers a new ...
[91]
Culture, Region, and Cross‐National Violent Crime
Feb 20, 2018 · Some scholars argue that modernization will result in higher crimes rates due to the breakdown of traditional norms and values combined with ...
[92]
The Effect of Social Connectedness on Crime: Evidence from ... - NIH
We find that social connectedness considerably reduces murders, rapes, robberies, assaults, burglaries, and motor vehicle thefts.
[93]
[PDF] The Effect of Social Connectedness on Crime
We find that social connectedness leads to sizable reduc- tions in crime rates. The elasticity of the crime rate with respect to social connectedness ranges ...
[94]
(PDF) respect due and respect earned - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · practice of turning respect into demands for deference. The relevance of this distinction is. discussed in terms of student–teacher ...
[95]
'Owed' and 'earned' respect are key factors in corporate performance
Jul 26, 2019 · “Those that get respect from their leaders reported 56% better health and well-being, 1.72 times more trust and safety, 89% greater enjoyment ...Missing: empirical studies
[96]
Earning Respect | Psychology Today
Feb 26, 2018 · True respect, according to dictionary.com, is a feeling of deep admiration for someone or something elicited by their abilities, qualities, or achievements.
[97]
(PDF) A Systematic and Critical Review of Research on Respect in ...
Nov 23, 2020 · In this systematic and critical review article, we provide a comprehensive summary and critique of theories, definitions, measures, and empirical studies of ...Missing: indicators | Show results with:indicators
[98]
Unearned respect is worthless | Andrew Brown - The Guardian
Mar 13, 2012 · This respect need not be earned and in fact it can't be. Following the philosopher Stephen Darwall, Garton Ash calls this "recognition respect".
[99]
Understanding Social Hierarchies: The Neural and Psychological ...
Social groups across species rapidly self-organize into hierarchies, where members vary in their level of power, influence, skill, or dominance.
[100]
Prestige and dominance-based hierarchies exist in naturally ...
May 1, 2019 · Prestige and dominance are thought to be two evolutionarily distinct routes to gaining status and influence in human social hierarchies.
[101]
Another Way to the Top: Hierarchies in Humans and Animals
May 19, 2022 · Social and evolutionary psychologists speculate that prestige-based hierarchies are unique to humans, arising to address the extensive cultural learning needed ...
[102]
[PDF] 8 Social Hierarchy: The Self‐Reinforcing Nature of Power and Status
Apr 1, 2009 · Hierarchy also serves a motivational function, providing incentives for individuals to try to ascend to higher positions in their groups and ...
[103]
The power of respect for authority and empathy – Leveraging non ...
Respect for authority (in contrast to empathy) passes the manipulation check and significantly reduces plate waste in a quasi-experimental field study in a ...
[104]
Cooperation and authoritarian values: An experimental study in China
According to Hofstede et al. (2010), a high power distance implies that respect for authority is a social norm, there is little discussion and subordinates ...