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Hypertriglyceridemia

Hypertriglyceridemia is a common metabolic disorder defined by elevated levels of triglycerides in the blood, with fasting concentrations of 150 mg/dL or higher indicating high levels in adults.^[1] Triglycerides, a type of fat derived from dietary calories or stored energy, play a normal role in providing fuel to the body, but excess amounts contribute to health complications when not properly metabolized.^[1] This condition often exists as part of broader lipid abnormalities and metabolic syndrome, affecting approximately one in three U.S. adults based on national health surveys.^[2] The etiology of hypertriglyceridemia is multifactorial, involving both genetic predispositions and secondary factors. Primary causes include inherited disorders such as familial hypertriglyceridemia or lipoprotein lipase deficiency, which impair the breakdown of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins like very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and chylomicrons.^[2] Secondary contributors encompass lifestyle elements like obesity, sedentary behavior, diets high in refined carbohydrates and sugars, excessive alcohol intake, and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, as well as certain medications including beta-blockers, estrogens, and thiazide diuretics.^[1] These factors lead to increased hepatic production of VLDL and reduced clearance, resulting in triglyceride accumulation in the bloodstream.^[2] Hypertriglyceridemia poses significant health risks, primarily cardiovascular disease and acute pancreatitis. Mild to moderate elevations (150–499 mg/dL) are linked to atherosclerosis and heightened risk of heart attack or stroke, often in conjunction with low HDL cholesterol and elevated LDL particles.^[1] Very high levels (>500 mg/dL) dramatically increase the likelihood of acute pancreatitis due to the toxic effects of free fatty acids released from triglyceride hydrolysis, with risks escalating further above 1,000 mg/dL and potentially causing multifactorial chylomicronemia syndrome.^[2] Other complications may include lipemia retinalis (milky appearance of retinal blood vessels) and, in severe cases, eruptive xanthomas or hepatosplenomegaly.^[1] Most individuals remain asymptomatic until complications arise, underscoring the importance of routine screening.^[1] Diagnosis involves a fasting lipid panel to measure triglyceride levels, with classification as follows: normal (<150 mg/dL), borderline high (150–199 mg/dL), high (200–499 mg/dL), and very high (≥500 mg/dL).^[2] For accurate assessment when triglycerides exceed 400 mg/dL, direct measurement of LDL cholesterol is recommended instead of calculation, and non-HDL cholesterol serves as a better risk indicator above 200 mg/dL.^[2] Evaluation also includes assessing for underlying causes through history, physical exam, and tests for glucose, thyroid function, and renal status.^[1] Management prioritizes lifestyle modifications to achieve triglyceride levels below 150 mg/dL ideally, or at least under 500 mg/dL to mitigate pancreatitis risk. Key interventions include adopting a heart-healthy diet low in saturated fats, trans fats, and simple sugars while emphasizing fiber-rich foods, weight loss (5–10% of body weight can reduce levels by 20%), regular aerobic exercise (at least 150 minutes weekly), and limiting alcohol.^[1] Pharmacotherapy is indicated for persistent elevations: fibrates (e.g., fenofibrate) reduce triglycerides by 30–50% via enhanced lipoprotein lipase activity; high-dose omega-3 fatty acids (e.g., icosapent ethyl) lower levels by 20–50% in severe cases; niacin provides 10–30% reduction; and statins address concurrent hypercholesterolemia.^[2] In rare genetic forms with extreme elevations, apheresis or therapies like volanesorsen and the recently EU-approved olezarsen (as of September 2025) may be considered.^[2]^[3] Ongoing monitoring and multidisciplinary care are essential for optimizing outcomes and preventing long-term complications.^[1]

Background

Definition and Classification

Hypertriglyceridemia is defined as elevated fasting plasma triglyceride (TG) levels exceeding 150 mg/dL (1.7 mmol/L), a threshold established to identify increased cardiovascular risk in adults. This condition represents a specific subset of hyperlipidemia, which more broadly refers to abnormal elevations in any blood lipids or lipoproteins, including cholesterol; in contrast, hypertriglyceridemia focuses primarily on excess triglycerides derived from dietary fats and endogenous production.^[4]^[2] Severity-based classification of hypertriglyceridemia relies on fasting TG concentrations to guide risk assessment and management. Mild hypertriglyceridemia is categorized as 150–499 mg/dL (1.7–5.6 mmol/L), often linked to metabolic syndrome and modestly elevating atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk. Moderate hypertriglyceridemia spans 500–999 mg/dL (5.6–11.3 mmol/L), where ASCVD risk persists alongside emerging concerns for other complications. Severe hypertriglyceridemia (≥1,000–1,999 mg/dL or 11.3–22.6 mmol/L) and very severe (≥2,000 mg/dL or ≥22.6 mmol/L) levels carry heightened clinical urgency, particularly the substantial risk of acute pancreatitis, with incidence rising to 5–10% at TG >1,000 mg/dL and exceeding 20% above 2,000 mg/dL due to pancreatic ischemia from lipid-laden chylomicrons.^[5]^[6]^[7] The Fredrickson classification, introduced in the 1960s and endorsed by the World Health Organization (WHO), provides a historical lipoprotein-phenotype framework for hypertriglyceridemia, identifying types I (chylomicron elevation, very severe TG >1,000 mg/dL), IV (VLDL elevation, moderate TG 200–1,000 mg/dL), and V (mixed chylomicron and VLDL elevation, severe TG >1,000 mg/dL). This qualitative system evolved into quantitative TG-level categorizations through National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines in 2004, emphasizing risk thresholds. Subsequent American Heart Association (AHA)/American College of Cardiology (ACC) updates, including the 2018 multisociety cholesterol management guideline, retained the >150 mg/dL definition while integrating nonfasting TG ≥175 mg/dL for screening; 2025 AHA scientific sessions reinforced these standards without redefining classifications, prioritizing therapeutic advancements for severe cases.^[8]^[9]^[10]

Normal Physiology of Triglycerides

Triglycerides, also known as triacylglycerols, are the primary form of dietary fat and energy storage in the body, consisting of a glycerol backbone esterified to three fatty acid chains of varying lengths and saturation levels.^[11] They serve as an efficient energy reserve, providing approximately 9 kcal per gram when metabolized, and are stored mainly in adipose tissue under normal conditions.^[12] In circulation, triglycerides are transported within lipoprotein particles to deliver fatty acids to peripheral tissues for energy production or storage.^[13] The metabolism of triglycerides begins with dietary absorption in the intestine, where ingested fats are emulsified by bile salts and hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipases into free fatty acids and 2-monoacylglycerols.^[14] These components are then taken up by enterocytes, re-esterified into triglycerides via the monoacylglycerol pathway, and packaged with apolipoprotein B-48 (apoB-48), phospholipids, cholesterol, and other lipids to form chylomicrons.^[14] Chylomicrons are secreted into the lymphatic system and enter the bloodstream via the thoracic duct, initiating the exogenous lipid transport pathway.^[12] In parallel, the liver contributes to triglyceride homeostasis through endogenous synthesis, incorporating fatty acids derived from de novo lipogenesis, adipose tissue lipolysis, or dietary sources into triglycerides, which are assembled with apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100) into very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL).^[13] Once in circulation, chylomicrons and VLDL undergo lipolysis primarily by lipoprotein lipase (LPL), an enzyme anchored on the endothelial surface of adipose and muscle tissues and activated by apolipoprotein C-II (apoC-II).^[15] This process hydrolyzes triglycerides into non-esterified fatty acids and glycerol, which are taken up by local tissues for oxidation or re-esterification and storage.^[15] After substantial triglyceride depletion, the resulting chylomicron remnants and intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) are further processed by hepatic lipase, which refines particle size and facilitates hepatic clearance via receptors recognizing apoE, such as the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP).^[15] This cycle ensures efficient delivery of lipids while maintaining low circulating triglyceride levels under normal physiology.^[13] Hormonal signals tightly regulate these pathways to balance storage and mobilization. Insulin promotes triglyceride storage by activating LPL in adipose tissue to favor fatty acid uptake and inhibiting hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) to suppress lipolysis in adipocytes.^[16] Conversely, glucagon and catecholamines stimulate HSL-mediated breakdown of stored triglycerides during fasting or stress, releasing fatty acids for hepatic VLDL production or peripheral use.^[16] Key regulatory proteins like apoC-II enhance LPL activity, while hepatic lipase aids in remnant maturation, ensuring coordinated lipid flux.^[15] In healthy individuals, fasting plasma triglyceride concentrations typically range from 50 to 150 mg/dL (0.56 to 1.69 mmol/L), reflecting balanced production and clearance.^[17] Postprandially, levels rise moderately due to chylomicron influx, peaking at 3 to 5 hours after a meal with increases of 50 to 150 mg/dL above baseline before returning to fasting values within 8 to 10 hours.^[18] This dynamic reflects the integrated exogenous and endogenous cycles, with the liver modulating VLDL output to prevent prolonged elevations.^[13]

Clinical Presentation

Signs and Symptoms

Hypertriglyceridemia is frequently asymptomatic, particularly in mild to moderate cases where triglyceride levels range from 150 to 999 mg/dL, and is often discovered incidentally through routine lipid screening or blood tests.^[19]^[1]^[2] In severe hypertriglyceridemia, with levels exceeding 1000 mg/dL, acute manifestations may emerge, including eruptive xanthomas, which present as small, itchy, red-to-yellow papules on the extensor surfaces of the limbs, buttocks, and back due to lipid deposits in the skin.^[2]^[8] Another characteristic sign is lipemia retinalis, where retinal blood vessels appear creamy or milky-white on fundoscopic examination owing to chylomicron accumulation.^[1]^[2] Additionally, patients may experience severe abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting from acute pancreatitis, a risk that escalates significantly when triglycerides surpass 1500–2000 mg/dL.^[19]^[8] Chronic or subtle signs in familial or longstanding forms include hepatosplenomegaly from lipid-laden macrophage infiltration in the liver and spleen, as well as recurrent abdominal discomfort potentially linked to repeated episodes of mild pancreatitis or gastrointestinal irritation.^[1]^[8] In type V hyperlipoproteinemia, characterized by elevated chylomicrons and very low-density lipoproteins, symptoms such as eruptive xanthomas or abdominal pain can flare postprandially after high-fat meals, as dietary lipids exacerbate chylomicronemia.^[2] For instance, patients may report sudden onset of skin lesions or epigastric pain hours after consuming fatty foods, highlighting the condition's sensitivity to dietary triggers.^[2]

Associated Complications

Hypertriglyceridemia, particularly when severe (triglyceride levels >1000 mg/dL), poses a substantial risk for acute pancreatitis, with the incidence escalating to approximately 20% in retrospective cohorts of affected patients.^[20] This threshold marks a critical point where the likelihood of pancreatic inflammation rises sharply, though cases have been reported at lower levels in susceptible individuals. The underlying mechanism involves the intrapancreatic hydrolysis of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins by pancreatic lipase, resulting in the liberation of toxic free fatty acids and lysophospholipids; these compounds damage acinar cells through direct cytotoxicity, membrane disruption, and induction of ischemia via increased plasma viscosity from chylomicron accumulation. Recent 2025 analyses from U.S. clinical practice data further highlight this risk, reporting an incidence of 9.9 acute pancreatitis events per 1000 person-years among adults with extreme hypertriglyceridemia (triglycerides ≥880 mg/dL), with rates climbing to 13.9 per 1000 in those with concurrent diabetes—a key component of metabolic syndrome that amplifies vulnerability.^[21] Beyond acute events, hypertriglyceridemia contributes to chronic cardiovascular disease by promoting atherogenesis, primarily through the generation of small, dense low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles and atherogenic remnant lipoproteins that penetrate the arterial intima, oxidize, and foster foam cell formation and plaque instability. Meta-analyses of large cohorts have quantified this association, demonstrating odds ratios for myocardial infarction of 1.31 (95% CI 1.15-1.49) and for overall cardiovascular events of 1.37 (95% CI 1.23-1.53) in individuals with elevated triglycerides.^[22]^[23] Integration with metabolic syndrome in 2025 updates underscores elevated complication rates, with cardiovascular event incidences reaching 10.3 per 1000 person-years in extreme hypertriglyceridemia cases, rising to 18.1 per 1000 among those with diabetes.^[21] Other notable complications include non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), where hypertriglyceridemia drives hepatic triglyceride accumulation, facilitating progression to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis characterized by inflammation and fibrosis. This link is evident in metabolic syndrome contexts, with hypertriglyceridemia exacerbating liver fat deposition and advancing disease severity. Additionally, hypertriglyceridemia heightens the risk of peripheral artery disease, particularly in statin-treated high-risk patients, where it independently predicts the need for arterial revascularization procedures.

Etiology

Primary Hypertriglyceridemia

Primary hypertriglyceridemia encompasses genetic disorders characterized by elevated triglyceride levels due to inherited defects in lipid metabolism, independent of secondary influences. These conditions are classified under the Fredrickson phenotypes, with monogenic forms causing severe elevations and polygenic forms leading to milder, multifactorial increases. The underlying genetic variants primarily affect the lipoprotein lipase (LPL) pathway, which is crucial for hydrolyzing triglycerides in chylomicrons and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL). The most severe monogenic form is familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS), also known as type I hyperlipoproteinemia, resulting from biallelic loss-of-function mutations in genes encoding components of the LPL complex. Over 90% of cases involve pathogenic variants in the LPL gene, with more than 200 such mutations identified, while rarer causes include mutations in APOC2, GPIHBP1, LMF1, or APOA5. This autosomal recessive disorder leads to profound impairment of triglyceride clearance, resulting in chylomicron accumulation and triglyceride levels often exceeding 1,000 mg/dL. The prevalence of FCS is approximately 1 in 1,000,000 individuals worldwide, though it may be higher in certain populations due to founder effects. Clinical manifestations typically emerge in childhood, including recurrent pancreatitis, eruptive xanthomas, and lipemia retinalis, with incomplete penetrance observed in some carriers influenced by dietary factors. Polygenic hypertriglyceridemia, corresponding to type IV hyperlipoproteinemia or familial hypertriglyceridemia, arises from the cumulative effect of multiple common and rare variants in over 30 genes, predominantly those in the LPL pathway such as LPL, APOA5, and APOC2. This form accounts for the majority of moderate elevations (200–1,000 mg/dL) and follows an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern with variable penetrance, where heterozygous carriers have a 50% risk of transmission to offspring but expressivity varies widely due to gene-environment interactions. Unlike monogenic forms, no single variant is highly penetrant; instead, a polygenic risk score incorporating dozens of loci better predicts phenotype, explaining up to 20% of triglyceride variance. A rare monogenic syndrome is familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (type III hyperlipoproteinemia), caused by homozygous or compound heterozygous mutations in the APOE gene, particularly the apoE2 isoform, which impairs remnant lipoprotein clearance. This leads to accumulation of cholesterol-enriched VLDL and chylomicron remnants, manifesting as mixed hyperlipidemia with palmar xanthomas and accelerated atherosclerosis. Prevalence is low, affecting about 1 in 5,000–10,000, and penetrance is incomplete, requiring additional genetic or environmental triggers for full expression. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in the 2020s have identified over 900 loci associated with lipid traits, including more than 300 specifically linked to triglyceride levels, highlighting the polygenic architecture of primary hypertriglyceridemia. These studies, involving cohorts exceeding 1.6 million individuals, underscore variants near LPL, APOA5, and novel regulators like TNFRSF1B as key contributors, with effect sizes ranging from modest (2–5 mg/dL per allele) to larger in rare variants. Penetrance remains low for individual common variants (often <10%), but cumulative scores aid risk stratification. Genetic testing is recommended for severe, persistent hypertriglyceridemia (>1,000 mg/dL) to confirm monogenic forms like FCS, guiding targeted therapies such as apoC-III inhibitors, and is increasingly available via next-generation sequencing panels covering 13–20 relevant genes. Testing is less routine for polygenic cases due to limited clinical utility but supports family screening in high-risk kindreds.

Secondary Causes

Secondary causes of hypertriglyceridemia encompass acquired factors that elevate triglyceride levels through environmental, physiological, or iatrogenic mechanisms, often reversible upon intervention. These contributors are prevalent in clinical practice and frequently coexist with metabolic disturbances, accounting for a significant proportion of mild to moderate cases in the general population.^[24] Unlike primary forms, secondary hypertriglyceridemia arises from modifiable lifestyle elements, underlying medical conditions, certain medications, and substance use, which can independently or synergistically impair triglyceride clearance or enhance production.^[2] Lifestyle factors play a central role in secondary hypertriglyceridemia. Diets high in carbohydrates, exceeding 60% of total caloric intake, promote hepatic de novo lipogenesis and increase very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion, leading to elevated fasting triglycerides, particularly in susceptible individuals.^[25] Sedentary behavior exacerbates this by reducing lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity in adipose and muscle tissues, thereby diminishing triglyceride hydrolysis and clearance from circulation.^[26] Obesity, defined by a body mass index greater than 30 kg/m², correlates with a 20-50% rise in triglyceride levels due to insulin resistance and expanded visceral fat mass, which heightens free fatty acid flux to the liver.^[24] Among medical conditions, diabetes mellitus is a leading cause, affecting approximately 48% of patients with type 2 diabetes through insulin resistance that impairs LPL-mediated triglyceride hydrolysis in peripheral tissues.^[27]^[28] Hypothyroidism contributes by decreasing LPL activity and hepatic lipase function, resulting in reduced triglyceride catabolism and accumulation of remnant particles; untreated cases commonly show triglyceride elevations.^[29] Nephrotic syndrome induces hypertriglyceridemia in nearly all patients via urinary loss of regulatory proteins such as LPL and apolipoprotein C-II, leading to impaired VLDL lipolysis and overproduction of atherogenic lipoproteins.^[30] Various medications can precipitate or worsen hypertriglyceridemia through specific mechanisms. Oral estrogens, including hormone replacement therapies, stimulate hepatic VLDL-triglyceride synthesis and secretion, potentially causing marked elevations in predisposed patients.^[5] Non-selective beta-blockers inhibit LPL activity and may promote weight gain, both contributing to reduced triglyceride clearance.^[31] Corticosteroids elevate triglycerides by enhancing hepatic VLDL production and inducing insulin resistance, with effects proportional to dose and duration.^[32] Alcohol consumption exerts dose-dependent effects on triglycerides, with moderate intake (up to 30 g/day) often neutral or beneficial, but excessive amounts (>50 g/day) triggering acute hypertriglyceridemia via enhanced hepatic VLDL overproduction and inhibited LPL activity.^[33] These secondary factors can amplify underlying primary hypertriglyceridemia, necessitating targeted evaluation.^[24]

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Tests

The diagnosis of hypertriglyceridemia primarily relies on laboratory assessment through a fasting lipid panel, which measures serum triglyceride (TG) levels after at least 8-12 hours of fasting to minimize postprandial influences. This panel also includes total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), with LDL-C typically estimated using the Friedewald equation—LDL-C = total cholesterol - HDL-C - (TG/5)—when TG levels are below 400 mg/dL (4.52 mmol/L). This approach provides a comprehensive lipid profile essential for classifying hypertriglyceridemia severity and identifying associated dyslipidemias.^[2]^[5] For more detailed characterization, advanced laboratory tests are employed, particularly in cases of suspected primary or complex forms. Lipoprotein electrophoresis separates plasma lipoproteins to identify patterns such as elevated chylomicrons (indicative of type I hyperlipoproteinemia) or very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL, seen in type IV), aiding in differentiating primary from secondary causes. Apolipoprotein B (apoB) measurement quantifies the number of atherogenic particles, as each VLDL and LDL particle contains one apoB molecule, offering superior cardiovascular risk assessment over LDL-C alone in hypertriglyceridemic states. Non-HDL cholesterol, calculated as total cholesterol minus HDL-C, is another key metric that captures cholesterol in all apoB-containing lipoproteins and is recommended when TG exceeds 200 mg/dL.^[34]^[35]^[36] In suspected primary hypertriglyceridemia, genetic sequencing targets monogenic disorders, such as mutations in lipoprotein lipase (LPL), apolipoprotein C-II (APOC2), or glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored HDL-binding protein 1 (GPIHBP1) genes, using next-generation sequencing panels that cover 10-20 relevant loci to confirm familial chylomicronemia syndrome or other inherited forms. Imaging modalities, such as abdominal ultrasound, are used to evaluate complications like hepatomegaly, which manifests as an enlarged liver span exceeding 15-16 cm in the midclavicular line, often with increased echogenicity due to fatty infiltration.^[37]^[38]^[2] Challenges arise in severe hypertriglyceridemia (TG >1000 mg/dL or 11.3 mmol/L), where lipemic serum interferes with spectrophotometric assays for direct LDL-C measurement, leading to underestimation or inaccuracies in up to 20-30% of cases. The Friedewald equation becomes unreliable above 400 mg/dL, prompting alternatives like the Martin-Hopkins or Sampson equations for TG up to 800 mg/dL. For precise quantification in such instances, the 2024 Association for Diagnostics & Laboratory Medicine (ADLM, formerly AACC) guidance endorses reference methods like ultracentrifugation or beta-quantification to isolate and measure LDL-C accurately, ensuring reliable diagnosis despite turbidity.^[39]^[40]^[41]

Clinical Guidelines

The American Heart Association (AHA) and American College of Cardiology (ACC) 2018 guideline on the management of blood cholesterol classifies triglyceride (TG) levels as normal (<150 mg/dL), borderline high (150–199 mg/dL), high (200–499 mg/dL), and very high (≥500 mg/dL), with moderate hypertriglyceridemia defined as 175–499 mg/dL and serving as a risk-enhancing factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) in primary prevention, particularly for intermediate-risk patients (10-year ASCVD risk 7.5%–19.9%).^[9] It establishes a general TG goal of <150 mg/dL for the population, while <100 mg/dL may be considered for high-risk patients such as those with ASCVD, emphasizing risk-based tiers that prioritize lifestyle interventions for moderate elevations and statin therapy if 10-year ASCVD risk is ≥7.5%.^[9] The 2023 AHA/ACC guideline for chronic coronary disease builds on this by referencing the 2021 ACC expert consensus, which defines persistent hypertriglyceridemia as ≥175 mg/dL after 4–12 weeks of lifestyle changes and maximally tolerated statin therapy, reinforcing risk-stratified approaches without introducing new TG thresholds but highlighting adjunctive therapies like icosapent ethyl for TG 150–499 mg/dL in high-risk patients on statins to reduce ASCVD events.^[42]^[43] The European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS) and European Society of Cardiology (ESC) 2019 guidelines, with no substantive changes in the 2025 focused update regarding TG measurement, recommend non-fasting TG assessment as it better predicts ASCVD risk than fasting levels, deeming ≥175 mg/dL (≥1.7 mmol/L) as elevated and integrating it with the SCORE system for 10-year fatal ASCVD risk estimation to guide therapy intensity across risk categories (very high, high, moderate, low).^[44] This approach uses non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) as a surrogate for remnant lipoproteins when TG is elevated, prioritizing it in risk scoring alongside factors like age, smoking, blood pressure, and total cholesterol. The Endocrine Society's 2012 clinical practice guideline advises screening first-degree relatives of patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia (≥500 mg/dL) for familial forms like familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS), recommending cascade genetic testing (e.g., for LPL, APOC2, APOA5 genes) if FCS is suspected based on recurrent pancreatitis, lipemic plasma, or early-onset severe TG elevations.^[5] This protocol emphasizes distinguishing primary genetic causes from secondary ones through family history and targeted testing to enable early intervention in at-risk relatives.^[5] Notable discrepancies exist between the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) guidelines from 2001, which treated hypertriglyceridemia primarily as a secondary target after LDL-C optimization (non-HDL-C goal 30 mg/dL above LDL-C if TG >200 mg/dL) without emphasizing TG causality, and modern guidelines that highlight remnant cholesterol (estimated as non-HDL-C or TG/5 in mmol/L) as an independent causal factor for ASCVD, shifting focus to direct TG-rich lipoprotein management in risk assessment.^[45]

Screening and Risk Assessment

Screening Recommendations

Screening for hypertriglyceridemia is integrated into broader lipid disorder assessments to identify individuals at risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and acute pancreatitis. The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) issued a grade B recommendation in 2008 for screening adults aged 40 to 75 years for lipid disorders, with more selective screening for younger adults (men 20-35 years and women 20-45 years) who have risk factors such as family history of premature coronary heart disease; this includes measurement of triglycerides as part of the panel, with reasonable intervals of every 5 years for low-risk individuals.^[46] The 2018 American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology (AHA/ACC) guideline supports the use of non-fasting lipid panels for initial screening in adults aged 20 years and older, as non-fasting triglyceride levels provide sufficient accuracy for risk assessment without requiring fasting.^[9] High-risk populations warrant more frequent screening to enable early intervention. Individuals with a family history of premature ASCVD or genetic dyslipidemias, diabetes mellitus, or obesity should undergo lipid panel evaluation more often than the general population, with intervals tailored to clinical context such as every 1-3 years or as guided by ongoing risk factors.^[47] For adults with diabetes, the American Diabetes Association's 2025 Standards of Care recommend obtaining a lipid profile at initial diagnosis or medical evaluation, then every 5 years for those under 40 years old, and every 1–2 years for those 40–75 years old, particularly if additional ASCVD risk factors are present, to monitor for hypertriglyceridemia and guide statin initiation.^[48] In pediatric populations, screening focuses on early detection of familial forms of hypertriglyceridemia. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines recommend universal lipid screening starting at ages 9-11 years for all children using a non-fasting non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol measurement, with repeat screening at ages 17-21 years; for children with familial risk (e.g., family history of dyslipidemia or premature ASCVD), screening should begin earlier, potentially as young as age 2 years if parental levels are known to be elevated.^[49] Routine screening for hypertriglyceridemia is considered cost-effective, with modeling studies indicating reductions in pancreatitis risk through early identification and management of severe elevations (triglyceride levels ≥500 mg/dL). If initial screening identifies elevated triglycerides, confirmatory fasting testing and evaluation for secondary causes are advised, though detailed diagnostic follow-up is addressed elsewhere.

Risk Stratification

Risk stratification in hypertriglyceridemia involves evaluating the severity of triglyceride (TG) elevation alongside other cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors to guide personalized management and predict outcomes such as atherosclerosis and pancreatitis. Traditional tools like the Framingham Risk Score (FRS) incorporate lipid profiles, where elevated TG levels serve as a modifier to refine the estimated 10-year CVD risk; for instance, TG >150 mg/dL in the context of low HDL-C can elevate intermediate-risk individuals (5-20%) to high-risk status (>20%), prompting intensified interventions.^[4]^[50] Emerging tools enhance precision by addressing insulin resistance and atherogenic particles. The triglyceride-glucose (TyG) index, calculated as ln[fasting TG (mg/dL) × fasting glucose (mg/dL)/2], is a validated surrogate for insulin resistance that independently predicts CVD events in hypertriglyceridemic patients, with higher values (>9.0) correlating to increased metabolic syndrome and residual risk beyond statin therapy.00247-1/fulltext) Similarly, remnant cholesterol, approximated as total cholesterol minus HDL-C minus LDL-C or simply TG/5 in mmol/L (valid for TG <400 mg/dL), quantifies cholesterol in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, which drives atherosclerosis; levels >0.9 mmol/L are associated with a 50-100% higher CVD risk in prospective cohorts.^[51] Patients are stratified into risk tiers based on TG levels and comorbidities: low risk includes those with TG <200 mg/dL and absence of metabolic syndrome or diabetes, conferring minimal additional CVD burden beyond standard factors; high risk encompasses severe hypertriglyceridemia (TG ≥500 mg/dL) combined with metabolic syndrome components like central obesity and hypertension, elevating pancreatitis and ASCVD odds by 3-5 fold.^[2] Polygenic risk scores (PRS) are emerging tools in research for familial hypertriglyceridemia, where high PRS (top quintile) in monogenic or polygenic cases identifies individuals with 2-3 times greater lifetime CVD risk, recommending genetic testing in persistent TG >500 mg/dL to refine familial versus multifactorial etiology.^[35]^[52]

Management

Lifestyle Modifications

Lifestyle modifications represent the cornerstone of therapy for hypertriglyceridemia, serving as the initial approach to reduce triglyceride levels and mitigate associated cardiovascular risks before considering pharmacologic options. These interventions target dietary habits, physical activity, weight management, and avoidance of exacerbating factors like alcohol and tobacco, often yielding substantial reductions in triglyceride concentrations through enhanced lipid metabolism and caloric control. Dietary changes are paramount, focusing on reducing intake of refined carbohydrates and added sugars to less than 10% of total calories, while emphasizing fiber-rich foods such as whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Patients should limit sugar-sweetened beverages and desserts, opting instead for a heart-healthy pattern rich in vegetables, nuts, lean proteins, and fatty fish containing omega-3 fatty acids, consumed at least twice weekly. For severe hypertriglyceridemia (triglycerides ≥1000 mg/dL), a very low-fat diet restricting fats to 10-15% of calories (20-30 g/day) is recommended until levels normalize. These adjustments can lower triglycerides by 20-50%, primarily by decreasing hepatic very-low-density lipoprotein production and improving insulin sensitivity.^[47]^[53]^[54] Regular physical activity enhances triglyceride clearance by increasing lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity, which hydrolyzes triglycerides in circulating lipoproteins. Guidelines recommend at least 150 minutes per week of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking or cycling, distributed over most days; vigorous activities like running can achieve equivalent benefits in 75 minutes weekly. For obese individuals, incorporating resistance training 2-3 times per week complements aerobic efforts by improving body composition and supporting sustained activity. Aerobic exercise alone can reduce triglycerides by 5-30%, with greater effects when combined with other modifications.^[55]^[47]^[56] Weight loss is particularly effective, with a 5-10% reduction in body weight associated with approximately 20% lower triglyceride levels, as demonstrated in meta-analyses of lifestyle interventions. This benefit arises from decreased visceral fat and improved hepatic lipid handling, achievable through caloric restriction (500-750 kcal/day deficit) alongside increased physical activity. Even modest losses improve overall metabolic health, making this a key target for overweight or obese patients.^[55]^[57] Limiting alcohol intake is essential, as consumption increases triglyceride levels in a dose-dependent manner; even moderate amounts (1-2 drinks daily) can raise levels by 7-10%, with higher intake exacerbating hypertriglyceridemia through enhanced hepatic triglyceride synthesis. Patients are advised to restrict alcohol to no more than one drink per day for women and two for men, or abstain entirely if triglycerides exceed 500 mg/dL. Smoking cessation further supports lipid management, yielding mild reductions in triglycerides (up to 0.15 mmol/L at one month post-cessation) while substantially lowering cardiovascular risk through improved endothelial function and reduced inflammation.^[58]^[47]^[59]

Pharmacologic Therapies

Pharmacologic therapies for hypertriglyceridemia target elevated triglyceride (TG) levels primarily through mechanisms that enhance clearance or reduce hepatic production of TG-rich lipoproteins, often used adjunctively with lifestyle modifications as the foundational approach.^[47] These agents are indicated based on TG severity and cardiovascular risk, with fibrates and omega-3 fatty acids serving as primary options for moderate to severe cases, while statins and niacin play supportive roles in mixed dyslipidemia.^[52] Emerging therapies, particularly apolipoprotein C-III (ApoC-III) inhibitors, offer substantial TG reductions for rare genetic forms like familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS).^[60] Fibrates, such as fenofibrate, act as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-α) agonists, upregulating lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity and reducing ApoC-III expression to promote TG hydrolysis and clearance from very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL).^[61] They achieve 30-50% TG reductions in patients with TG levels exceeding 500 mg/dL, where the risk of pancreatitis is heightened, and are recommended for such severe hypertriglyceridemia to prevent acute complications.^[43] The Fenofibrate Intervention and Event Lowering in Diabetes (FIELD) trial demonstrated a 24% reduction in nonfatal myocardial infarction among high-risk patients, though the more recent Pemafibrate to Reduce Cardiovascular OutcoMes by Reducing Triglycerides In patiENts With diabeTes (PROMINENT) trial showed no overall cardiovascular benefit. Common side effects include gastrointestinal disturbances and elevated creatinine, with increased myopathy risk when combined with statins.^[61] Omega-3 fatty acids, particularly icosapent ethyl (a purified eicosapentaenoic acid ethyl ester), lower TG by suppressing VLDL-TG incorporation in the liver and enhancing LPL-mediated clearance, achieving 20-30% reductions in patients with TG levels between 135-499 mg/dL despite statin therapy.^[61] The Reduction of Cardiovascular Events with Icosapent Ethyl–Intervention Trial (REDUCE-IT) reported a 25% relative risk reduction in major adverse cardiovascular events, including cardiovascular death, among statin-treated patients with elevated TG and established or high-risk cardiovascular disease.^[62] Indications focus on high-risk individuals to mitigate residual ischemic risk, with potential side effects including bleeding and atrial fibrillation.^[61] Statins, primarily HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors like atorvastatin, modestly reduce TG by 15-30% through decreased VLDL production and improved clearance, particularly beneficial in mixed dyslipidemia where low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is also elevated.^[61] They synergize with fibrates or omega-3 agents in patients with combined hyperlipidemia, as supported by guidelines emphasizing statin primacy for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk reduction alongside TG management.^[47] Niacin (nicotinic acid) complements this by inhibiting hepatic TG synthesis and increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, yielding 20-50% TG lowering, but its use is limited due to lack of cardiovascular outcome benefits in trials like AIM-HIGH and HPS2-THRIVE, coupled with flushing and hepatotoxicity.^[61] Both are typically adjunctive, with statins preferred for broader lipid control. ApoC-III inhibitors represent emerging options for severe, genetic hypertriglyceridemia, targeting an inhibitor of LPL to boost TG clearance; volanesorsen, an antisense oligonucleotide conditionally approved by the EMA in 2019 (not approved by the FDA due to safety concerns), reduces TG by 71-77% in FCS patients but is associated with thrombocytopenia in up to 70% of cases, as shown in the APPROACH trial. Olezarsen (Tryngolza), approved by the FDA in December 2024 and the EMA in September 2025, achieves 43-62% TG reductions with a better tolerability profile, including fewer injection-site reactions and reduced thrombocytopenia risk, per the BALANCE and SHASTA-2 trials in FCS and severe hypertriglyceridemia.^[60] These therapies are reserved for refractory familial cases unresponsive to conventional treatments.^[61]

Advanced Interventions

Plasmapheresis is employed as an emergency intervention for severe hypertriglyceridemia complicated by acute pancreatitis, particularly when triglyceride levels exceed 1000 mg/dL. This procedure involves the extracorporeal removal and replacement of plasma to rapidly deplete triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, achieving a 50-70% reduction in serum triglycerides after a single session.^[63] In clinical practice, it is initiated within the first 24 hours of hospitalization to mitigate pancreatic inflammation and prevent further complications, with studies demonstrating improved outcomes compared to conservative management alone.^[64] Apheresis therapies, such as LDL apheresis, are indicated for patients with refractory combined hyperlipidemia involving elevated triglycerides and LDL cholesterol unresponsive to maximal pharmacologic treatment. These extracorporeal procedures selectively remove atherogenic lipoproteins, resulting in acute reductions of 30-50% in triglycerides alongside 60-80% decreases in LDL cholesterol, with treatments typically administered weekly or biweekly to maintain chronic lowering of 20-40%.^[65] Long-term use has been associated with reduced cardiovascular event rates in high-risk cohorts, though access is limited to specialized centers due to the procedure's invasiveness and cost.^[66] Bariatric surgery, particularly Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), addresses obesity-related secondary hypertriglyceridemia by promoting substantial and sustained weight loss, leading to improvements in lipid metabolism. Postoperative triglyceride reductions of 30-50% are commonly observed within the first year, with sustained decreases of approximately 30% at 10-15 years post-surgery, correlated with the degree of weight loss and resolution of insulin resistance.^[67] This intervention is recommended for morbidly obese patients with triglycerides persistently above 500 mg/dL despite lifestyle and medical optimization, offering durable benefits on cardiometabolic risk factors.^[68] Gene therapies targeting the lipoprotein lipase (LPL) pathway represent an emerging class of advanced interventions for genetic forms of severe hypertriglyceridemia, such as familial chylomicronemia syndrome. CRISPR-based editing approaches, including those inactivating LPL inhibitors like ANGPTL3, have entered clinical trials; phase I data from 2024-2025 trials demonstrated safe, durable triglyceride reductions of up to 55% following a single intravenous dose, with phase II studies ongoing to assess long-term efficacy in broader populations.^[69] These one-time treatments aim to permanently restore LPL activity, potentially eliminating the need for lifelong lipid-lowering agents in monogenic cases.^[70]

Epidemiology

Global Prevalence

Hypertriglyceridemia, defined as triglyceride levels of 150 mg/dL or higher, affects an estimated 28.8% (95% CI: 27.19–30.41%) of the global adult population according to a 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies.^[71] This prevalence varies by diagnostic cutoff and population, with another multinational analysis reporting a global rate of 32.6% among adults.^[72] Regional disparities are evident, with higher rates observed in parts of Asia, such as 44.8% in Indonesia and 29.6% in South Korea, compared to lower averages in Europe, where estimates range from approximately 10% in general populations to 29.6% in specific cohorts like Spain.^[73]^[72]^[74] Severe hypertriglyceridemia, typically defined as triglyceride levels exceeding 500 mg/dL, has a much lower global prevalence of 0.1% to 1%, with population-based estimates varying by region—for instance, 0.80% in the United States and 0.15% in Spain.^[75] This form remains underdiagnosed, particularly in low-income regions, where limited access to lipid screening and higher burdens of associated risk factors like uncontrolled diabetes contribute to gaps in detection.^[73]^[76] Prevalence trends indicate a rising global burden, attributed to the obesity epidemic and dietary shifts toward high-carbohydrate and high-fat intake. The 2025 meta-analysis reports significant regional increases, such as +56.3% per decade in Latin America (e.g., 43.5% in Colombia) and +44.8% per decade in North America.^[71]^[77]^[72] In the United States, however, NHANES data through 2012 showed a decline in prevalence from ~33% (2001-2004) to ~26% (2009-2012) due to improved management, with stabilization around 24% through 2020 despite rising obesity, as later NHANES cycles (up to 2018) indicate mean triglyceride levels falling to 91.4 mg/dL.^[78]^[79]^[80] Regional variations highlight unique contributors to prevalence; South Asians exhibit the highest genetic burden, with elevated rates of hypertriglyceridemia linked to polygenic variants affecting lipid metabolism and a predisposition to smaller, denser LDL particles.^[81] In Latin America, secondary hypertriglyceridemia predominates due to dietary patterns rich in lard, fried foods, and ultra-processed sugars, resulting in high regional rates such as 43.5% in Colombia.^[77]^[72]

Demographic Patterns

Hypertriglyceridemia prevalence exhibits distinct age-related patterns, with levels generally increasing throughout adulthood and peaking in middle age. In men, the condition reaches its highest rates during the 40s and 50s, with studies reporting peaks of up to 47.7% for triglyceride levels ≥150 mg/dL in this age group.^[82] In women, prevalence continues to rise with advancing age, often without a similar decline after middle age. Among pediatric populations, hypertriglyceridemia affects approximately 5-10% of obese children, driven by factors such as excess adiposity and early metabolic disturbances.^[83] Sex differences in hypertriglyceridemia are influenced by hormonal factors, with men typically showing higher prevalence rates than premenopausal women due to the protective effects of estrogen on lipid metabolism.^[84] Postmenopause, however, women's triglyceride levels rise significantly, often surpassing those in men as estrogen decline contributes to adverse lipid profiles.^[85] This shift is attributed to the loss of estrogen's regulatory role in hepatic triglyceride production and clearance.^[86] Ethnic variations highlight disproportionate burdens in certain groups, with Hispanics experiencing the highest prevalence rates, estimated at 30-40% in some U.S. cohorts, linked to both genetic and environmental factors.^[87] South Asians also face elevated risks due to genetic predispositions, such as variants in lipid metabolism genes, contributing to higher incidence compared to other populations.^[88] In contrast, individuals of African ancestry generally have the lowest rates, with triglyceride levels notably lower than in White or Hispanic groups, possibly reflecting protective genetic adaptations.^[89] Socioeconomic status plays a key role in hypertriglyceridemia distribution, with low socioeconomic groups facing 1.5- to 2-fold higher prevalence compared to higher-status individuals, primarily due to limited access to healthy diets and preventive care.^[90] Recent analyses, including 2025 health surveys, underscore this disparity, emphasizing barriers like food insecurity and reduced healthcare engagement in low-income communities.^[91]

Research Directions

Current Investigations

Recent investigations into biomarkers for hypertriglyceridemia have focused on the angiopoietin-like proteins ANGPTL3 and ANGPTL4, which play key roles in regulating triglyceride metabolism by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity, thereby influencing the partitioning and clearance of triglycerides in circulation.^[92] ANGPTL3 and ANGPTL4 form complexes with ANGPTL8 to modulate LPL, promoting triglyceride storage during fasting states and contributing to dyslipidemia in conditions like type 2 diabetes.^[93] Loss-of-function variants in these proteins have been linked to reduced triglyceride levels and lower cardiovascular risk in genome-wide association studies.^[94] Ongoing phase III clinical trials are evaluating inhibitors targeting these proteins for therapeutic potential in hypertriglyceridemia. For instance, the monoclonal antibody SHR-1918, an ANGPTL3 inhibitor, is being assessed in a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (NCT06723652) for its efficacy in reducing triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HoFH), a condition associated with dyslipidemia.^[95] Similarly, ANGPTL4 inhibitory antibodies, such as MAR001, have shown promising safety and triglyceride-lowering effects in phase II trials, with reductions in circulating triglycerides and remnant cholesterol observed without significant adverse events related to lymphatic architecture.^[96] These studies highlight the mechanistic role of ANGPTL proteins as biomarkers for triglyceride regulation and potential targets for precision interventions. A phase 1 trial of CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing targeting ANGPTL3 (CTX310), presented at AHA 2025, demonstrated safety and efficacy in reducing LDL cholesterol by up to 60% and triglycerides by approximately 50% in healthy volunteers and patients with dyslipidemia, with minimal adverse events.^[97] This first-in-human approach advances gene-editing therapies for lipid disorders. Imaging studies utilizing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are elucidating the connections between visceral adipose tissue (VAT) accumulation and hypertriglyceridemia, demonstrating that higher VAT volumes correlate with elevated triglyceride levels and dyslipidemia independent of overall adiposity.^[98] In longitudinal cohorts, such as extensions of the Framingham Heart Study, MRI assessments of VAT have been integrated with serial lipid measurements to track changes in triglyceride profiles over time, revealing that persistent VAT elevation predicts worsening hypertriglyceridemia in middle-aged adults.^[99] These investigations, including those from 18-month lifestyle intervention trials, show that VAT reduction via weight loss is associated with improved triglyceride clearance, underscoring MRI's utility in quantifying ectopic fat's role in metabolic dysregulation.^[98] Epidemiologic trials are advancing the use of polygenic risk scores (PRS) in multi-ethnic populations to predict hypertriglyceridemia risk, with analyses from the UK Biobank in 2024 and 2025 identifying key variants such as LPL_rs328, APOA5_rs2072560, and GCKR_rs780093 that elevate serum triglycerides above 200 mg/dL.^[100] Multi-ancestry PRS models, optimized using trans-ancestry GWAS meta-analyses across UK Biobank, eMERGE, and PAGE cohorts, have demonstrated improved predictive accuracy for hypertriglyceridemia, with ensemble approaches achieving higher area under the curve (AUC) values compared to single-ancestry models, though performance varies by ancestry (e.g., 7.6% AUC drop in African ancestries).^[101] These studies also reveal interactions between PRS and lifestyle factors, such as plant-based diets and alcohol intake, which modify triglyceride risk in both European and East Asian cohorts like KoGES.^[100] Investigations into the aftermath of COVID-19 have identified post-viral hypertriglyceridemia spikes as a component of long COVID, with cohort studies reporting persistent dyslipidemia in a subset of long-haul cases, characterized by elevated triglycerides and reduced HDL-cholesterol persisting for months to years post-infection.^[102] Longitudinal analyses indicate that SARS-CoV-2 infection disrupts lipoprotein metabolism, leading to increased atherogenic lipid profiles and prolonged inflammatory states that exacerbate hypertriglyceridemia risk.^[103] These findings, drawn from real-world populations followed for up to six years, emphasize the need for targeted lipid monitoring in COVID-19 survivors to mitigate cardiovascular complications.^[104]

Emerging Therapies

Emerging therapies for hypertriglyceridemia are advancing through innovative approaches that target underlying molecular pathways, microbial ecosystems, and drug delivery mechanisms to achieve more effective triglyceride (TG) lowering beyond current standards.^[105] These investigational treatments aim to address severe and familial forms of the condition, where traditional interventions often fall short in reducing cardiovascular and pancreatitis risks.^[106] RNA interference (RNAi) therapies represent a promising frontier by silencing genes involved in TG metabolism, particularly apolipoprotein C-III (APOC3), which inhibits lipoprotein lipase activity. Olezarsen, an antisense oligonucleotide targeting APOC3, has demonstrated substantial efficacy in phase III trials for severe hypertriglyceridemia. In the CORE and CORE2 studies, olezarsen achieved up to a 72% placebo-adjusted mean reduction in fasting TG levels at six months, with effects sustained through 12 months in patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia, including familial chylomicronemia syndrome cases.^[105]^[106] Additionally, olezarsen reduced acute pancreatitis events by 85% compared to placebo, marking the first such outcome in this population.^[107] These results position olezarsen as a potential monthly injectable therapy for high-risk patients, with regulatory submissions anticipated based on 2025 data.^[108] Expansions in PCSK9 inhibitor applications are exploring their role in combination regimens for TG management, particularly in patients with mixed dyslipidemia. Evolocumab, a monoclonal antibody that enhances LDL receptor recycling, has shown modest but additive TG reductions when combined with statins or fibrates in hypertriglyceridemic subgroups. In post-hoc analyses from phase II and III trials, evolocumab lowered TG levels by approximately 12-20% in patients with baseline TG ≥150 mg/dL, supporting its use in combo therapy to address residual hypertriglyceridemia.^[109] Ongoing extensions from cardiovascular outcome trials are evaluating long-term TG modulation and safety in high-TG cohorts, with preliminary 2025 data indicating sustained benefits without new adverse events.^[110] This builds on evolocumab's established LDL-lowering profile, potentially broadening its indication for comprehensive lipid control.^[111] A phase 2 trial of the triple agonist DR10624, presented at AHA 2025, showed significant reductions in triglycerides (up to 70%) and liver fat in patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia over 12 weeks, with a favorable safety profile as a weekly subcutaneous injection.^[112] Microbiome-based interventions, such as probiotics, are gaining traction by modulating the gut-liver axis to influence TG synthesis and absorption. Early human trials have tested strains like Lactobacillus curvatus HY7601 and Lactobacillus plantarum KY1032, which alter bile acid metabolism and reduce hepatic TG production. In randomized controlled studies, probiotic supplementation led to 15-20% reductions in serum TG levels over 8-12 weeks, particularly when combined with dietary interventions in mild to moderate hypertriglyceridemia.^[113] These effects are attributed to enhanced short-chain fatty acid production and decreased intestinal lipid uptake, with no significant safety concerns reported in phase I/II trials as of 2025.^[114] Further validation in larger cohorts is underway to confirm microbiome shifts as a viable adjunct therapy.^[115] Nanotechnology approaches are enhancing the delivery of omega-3 fatty acids, which activate PPAR-alpha to lower TG, by improving bioavailability and stability. Liposomal encapsulation of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has shown preclinical promise in 2025 models of hypertriglyceridemia, achieving up to 2-3 fold higher plasma levels compared to standard formulations due to protected gastrointestinal absorption.^[116] These self-microemulsifying systems reduce oxidative degradation and target hepatic uptake, potentially amplifying TG reductions by 30-50% in animal studies without increasing dosing requirements.^[117] Early translational data suggest this could overcome limitations of conventional fish oil supplements, paving the way for phase I human testing.^[118]

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(PDF) Prevalence of hypertriglyceridemia in adults and related ...
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In summary, applying nanoparticles to encapsulate omega-3 fatty acids shows considerable potential for resolving present problems in omega-3 supplementation, ...
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Apr 27, 2024 · In conclusion, encapsulating omega-3 fatty acids with nanoparticles offers a potential strategy for improving the vital nutrients' durability, ...