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INC

The Indian National Congress (INC) is a centrist political party in India, founded on 28 December 1885 in Bombay (now Mumbai) by British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume and a group of Indian nationalists to serve as a forum for moderate constitutional reforms within the British colonial framework.^[1] Initially comprising mostly English-educated elites, it sought greater Indian representation in governance rather than outright independence, convening annual sessions to petition authorities on issues like civil service recruitment and legislative councils.^[1] By the early 20th century, under leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and later Mahatma Gandhi, the INC radicalized into the preeminent organization driving India's independence struggle through mass mobilization, non-cooperation campaigns, and the Quit India Movement of 1942, ultimately contributing to the end of British rule in 1947.^[1]^[2] Post-independence, the INC dominated Indian politics, securing overwhelming victories in the inaugural 1952 general elections with 364 of 489 seats and maintaining power for nearly four decades under prime ministers Jawaharlal Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi, and Rajiv Gandhi, enacting landmark reforms including land redistribution, industrialization via five-year plans, and the integration of princely states into the republic.^[3] Its governance emphasized secularism, non-alignment in foreign policy, and a mixed economy blending state control with private enterprise, though these policies drew criticism for bureaucratic inefficiencies and stifled growth compared to later liberalizations.^[1] The party's tenure included significant achievements like the Green Revolution's agricultural surge in the 1960s–1970s and the 1991 economic liberalization under P.V. Narasimha Rao, which dismantled the "License Raj" and spurred GDP acceleration.^[4] However, the INC faced defining controversies, notably Indira Gandhi's declaration of a national Emergency in 1975–1977, suspending civil liberties and leading to forced sterilizations and press censorship, which eroded democratic norms and prompted its electoral defeat in 1977.^[5] A persistent characteristic has been the Nehru-Gandhi family's outsized influence, with four prime ministers and multiple party presidents from the lineage—Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, and Rahul Gandhi—fostering accusations of dynastic entitlement that sidelined merit-based leadership and contributed to factionalism and the party's reduced national footprint after 2014, when it entered opposition amid corruption scandals like the Commonwealth Games irregularities and 2G spectrum allocation.^[1]^[6] Despite these setbacks, the INC remains a key opposition force, advocating social justice programs and critiquing Hindu nationalism, though its ideological adaptability—from socialism to pro-business shifts—has invited charges of opportunism in analyses of its electoral resilience and decline.^[7]^[5]

Business and legal usage

Incorporation (Inc.)

Incorporation, denoted by "Inc." in a company's name, refers to the legal process of forming a corporation as a distinct entity separate from its owners under state law in the United States.^[8]^[9] This status grants the business perpetual existence independent of its shareholders and limits owners' personal liability for corporate debts and obligations.^[9]^[10] The "Inc." suffix specifically signals that the entity is incorporated as a corporation, distinguishing it from other structures like limited liability companies (LLCs), which use "LLC" instead.^[11]^[12] The incorporation process begins with selecting a unique business name compliant with state rules, often requiring a search to ensure availability, followed by appointing a registered agent to receive legal documents.^[13]^[14] Prospective incorporators then draft and file articles of incorporation with the state's secretary of state office, detailing essentials such as the corporation's name, purpose, authorized shares of stock, and principal office location; filing fees typically range from $50 to $500 depending on the state.^[9]^[15] Upon approval, the state issues a certificate of incorporation, after which the corporation adopts bylaws, issues stock, and obtains an Employer Identification Number (EIN) from the IRS for tax purposes.^[10]^[16] Most states require annual reports and franchise taxes post-incorporation to maintain good standing.^[16] Corporations designated as "Inc." are typically C corporations by default, subject to double taxation—corporate income taxed at the entity level (federal rate up to 21% as of 2023) and dividends taxed at the shareholder level—though S corporations (elected via IRS Form 2553) offer pass-through taxation avoiding entity-level taxes if eligibility criteria like U.S. shareholder residency are met.^[9]^[17] Key advantages include shielding personal assets from business liabilities, facilitating easier capital raising through stock issuance, and providing continuity unaffected by owner changes.^[18]^[9] However, requirements such as formal record-keeping, board meetings, and higher compliance costs can burden smaller entities compared to sole proprietorships or LLCs.^[18]^[19] State laws govern variations, with Delaware popular for its business-friendly courts and low taxes, hosting over 60% of Fortune 500 companies as of 2023.^[20]

Political organizations

Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) was established on December 28, 1885, at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay, with 72 delegates attending the inaugural session presided over by W.C. Bonnerjee.^[21] The initiative originated from Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, who aimed to create a platform for educated Indians to articulate grievances against colonial administration and advocate for reforms such as greater Indian representation in civil services and legislative councils.^[21] Initially focused on moderate constitutional agitation, the party drew early support from professionals, landlords, and intellectuals, emphasizing loyalty to the British Crown while pushing for administrative changes.^[21] Under leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and later Mahatma Gandhi, the INC evolved into the principal vehicle for India's independence struggle, organizing mass campaigns of non-cooperation, civil disobedience, and boycott of British goods from the 1920s onward.^[22] Key milestones included the 1920 Non-Cooperation Movement, which mobilized millions against British rule, and the 1930 Salt March, which defied colonial salt taxes and galvanized nationwide participation.^[22] By 1942, the Quit India Resolution demanded immediate British withdrawal, leading to widespread arrests but accelerating the push toward partition and independence in 1947.^[22] The party's secular, inclusive approach contrasted with the Muslim League's communal demands, though internal debates over strategy—between moderates favoring negotiation and extremists advocating direct action—shaped its trajectory.^[23] Post-independence, the INC dominated Indian politics, forming governments continuously from 1947 to 1977 and again from 1980 to 1989, 1991 to 1996, 2004 to 2014, and in coalition since 2024.^[24] Jawaharlal Nehru served as the first prime minister from 1947 until his death in 1964, overseeing land reforms, industrialization via five-year plans, and non-alignment in foreign policy, though these centralized policies entrenched a bureaucratic "License Raj" that hindered private enterprise until liberalization in 1991. Indira Gandhi's tenure from 1966 to 1977 and 1980 to 1984 included nationalization of banks (1969) and the 1975–1977 Emergency, during which civil liberties were suspended, opposition leaders imprisoned, and forced sterilizations conducted, eroding democratic norms.^[25] The party's prolonged dominance fostered perceptions of one-party rule, with power concentrated in the Nehru-Gandhi family across generations, contributing to internal factionalism and voter fatigue.^[26] Ideologically, the INC began as a liberal reformist body seeking incremental self-governance but shifted toward assertive nationalism by the early 20th century, incorporating Gandhian principles of swaraj (self-rule) and ahimsa (non-violence).^[27] Post-1947, it adopted a mixed-economy model with socialist elements, including state-led development and affirmative action for castes, but under P.V. Narasimha Rao in 1991, it pivoted to economic liberalization, deregulation, and globalization to address fiscal crises.^[27] Today, it positions itself as centrist, advocating secularism, social welfare, and federalism, though critics argue its policies have inconsistently balanced market reforms with populist subsidies, leading to fiscal deficits.^[27] Current leadership rests with president Mallikarjun Kharge, elected on October 26, 2022, marking a departure from family dominance, though Rahul Gandhi remains a key figure as Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha following the 2024 elections.^[28] In those polls, the INC secured 99 seats—up from 52 in 2019—as part of the INDIA alliance, denying the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) a solo majority with 240 seats, reflecting gains in states like Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra amid anti-incumbency against the ruling coalition.^[24]^[26] This resurgence stemmed from focused campaigns on unemployment, inflation, and caste census demands, though the party holds only about 20% of state governments as of 2025.^[29] The INC has faced persistent allegations of corruption, particularly during the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) governments from 2004 to 2014, including the 2G spectrum scam (estimated loss of $39 billion), coal allocation irregularities (over $30 billion), and Commonwealth Games graft, which implicated senior leaders and fueled public disillusionment.^[25]^[30] These scandals, investigated by the Comptroller and Auditor General, highlighted cronyism in resource allocation and contributed to the party's electoral rout in 2014, when it won just 44 seats.^[30] Dynastic succession and perceived minority appeasement have also drawn criticism for prioritizing family loyalty over merit-based selection, exacerbating organizational weaknesses against rivals' grassroots mobilization.^[26] Despite such issues, the party's historical role in nation-building endures, with ongoing efforts to rebuild through alliances and policy critiques.^[26]

Religious organizations

Iglesia ni Cristo

Iglesia ni Cristo (INC) is an independent Christian denomination originating in the Philippines, emphasizing restorationist theology and strict adherence to biblical literalism. Founded by Felix Ysagun Manalo, the church was officially registered with the Philippine government on July 27, 1914, in Punta, Santa Ana, Manila, marking its formal establishment after Manalo's earlier religious explorations.^[31]^[32] Manalo, born May 10, 1886, positioned himself as God's final messenger prophesied in Scripture, leading to doctrines asserting INC as the sole true church re-established in the "last days."^[33] Core beliefs include rejection of the Trinity, with God the Father as the sole deity, Jesus Christ as a human savior and Son of God without divine essence, and the Holy Spirit as God's impersonal power rather than a person.^[32] Salvation is exclusively available through membership in INC, requiring baptism by immersion for adults who profess faith, weekly worship on Thursdays, and tithing.^[32] The church prohibits holidays like Christmas and Easter as pagan-derived, forbids interracial marriage among members, and mandates expulsion for doctrinal dissent or association with ex-members, whom it deems apostates.^[32] As of the 2020 Philippine Census of Population and Housing, INC reported 2,806,524 adherents in the Philippines, comprising 2.6% of the national population and ranking as the fourth-largest religious group after Roman Catholicism, Islam, and Philippine Independent Church.^[34] Worldwide estimates range from 3 to 10 million, with congregations in over 100 countries, though exact figures are not publicly disclosed by the church.^[31] Governance is centralized under an executive minister—currently Eduardo V. Manalo, grandson of the founder—overseeing a hierarchy of ministers and local congregations housed in architecturally distinctive rectangular chapels.^[35] INC exerts significant political influence in the Philippines through bloc voting, directing members to support endorsed candidates en masse, which has swayed elections since the 1980s and prompted politicians to seek church favor.^[34]^[36] This practice, justified internally as upholding biblical unity, has drawn criticism for undermining voter autonomy and enabling leverage over policy.^[37] Major controversies include the 2015 leadership crisis, triggered by allegations of corruption, human trafficking, and sexual abuse against senior ministers by expelled deputy executive minister Felix Nathaniel "Angel" Manalo and his mother, Cristina "Tenny" Villanueva-Manalo.^[38] The church responded by expelling the critics, filing libel suits, and mobilizing protests against media coverage, while denying the claims as fabrications by disgruntled ex-members.^[35] Investigations by Philippine authorities led to dropped charges against INC leaders due to insufficient evidence, but the episode exposed internal power struggles and reports of suppressed dissent through expulsion and legal intimidation.^[38] Further suits have involved property disputes among Manalo heirs and accusations of church-orchestrated violence against critics, though convictions remain rare.^[39]

Media and publications

Inc. (magazine)

Inc. is an American business media company specializing in content for entrepreneurs, startups, and growing private companies. Founded in 1979 by Bernard Goldhirsh in Boston, Massachusetts, its inaugural issue appeared in April of that year, initially headquartered in the city's waterfront area.^[40]^[41] The publication emphasizes practical advice, case studies, and profiles of innovative business leaders, positioning itself as a resource for owners and managers navigating expansion and operational challenges.^[42] In 2005, Inc. was acquired by Mansueto Ventures LLC, founded by Joe Mansueto, the creator of Morningstar, from the German publisher Gruner + Jahr; the deal included its sister publication Fast Company.^[43]^[42] Under Mansueto's ownership, the magazine shifted toward greater digital integration while maintaining a print presence, with headquarters relocating to New York City.^[42] Its editorial mission centers on inspiring and informing American entrepreneurs by documenting risk-takers and innovators who drive economic growth, often through features on scalable business models and leadership strategies.^[44] A hallmark of Inc. is the annual Inc. 5000 list, which ranks the fastest-growing private companies in the United States based on percentage revenue growth over a three-year period, with eligibility requiring at least $2 million in revenue in the final year and positive growth in each. First compiled in 1982 as the Inc. 100 and expanded over time, the list has recognized over 15,000 companies by 2024, providing data-driven validation of entrepreneurial success amid varying economic conditions. The methodology prioritizes verifiable financial metrics submitted by applicants and audited for accuracy, though it has drawn scrutiny for occasionally including firms with aggressive accounting practices that later faced regulatory issues. Inc.'s content extends beyond print to inc.com, offering daily articles, podcasts, and events like the Inc. 5000 Conference, which convene founders for networking and insights on capital raising and scaling.^[45] Circulation figures, while not publicly detailed in recent years, historically targeted mid-market executives, with a subscriber base exceeding 700,000 at its peak in the 1990s before digital shifts.^[42] The brand maintains an editorial stance supportive of free-market innovation, frequently highlighting bootstrapped ventures over venture-capital-dependent models, though it has covered topics like regulatory hurdles and talent acquisition without overt ideological slant.^[44]

References

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