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Inning

An inning is a division of a baseball game consisting of a turn at bat for each team, during which the batting team attempts to score runs while the fielding team tries to record outs.^[1] In baseball and similar games like softball, an inning serves as the fundamental unit of play and is divided into two halves: the "top" half, where the visiting team bats against the home team's fielders, and the "bottom" half, where the roles reverse.^[2] Each half-inning ends when the defensive team records three outs against the batting team, regardless of the number of runs scored.^[3] A standard regulation baseball game consists of nine innings, though the game may end earlier if the home team leads after the top of the ninth or is mathematically unable to catch up.^[4] If the score is tied after nine full innings, play continues into extra innings until a winner is determined, with each extra inning following the same top-and-bottom structure.^[5] The term "inning" originates from the early 18th century, deriving from the Old English word for "entrance" or "taking in," reflecting a team's turn to enter the action, and it has been used in baseball since the 19th century while appearing in plural form ("innings") in cricket.^[6] Innings play a central role in baseball's strategy and pacing, influencing pitching rotations—where pitchers often work multiple innings—and offensive opportunities, with key moments like the seventh-inning stretch providing a brief pause for spectators. Variations exist across levels of play: youth and amateur games may be shortened to six or seven innings for safety and time constraints, while professional leagues like Major League Baseball (MLB) adhere strictly to the nine-inning format unless weather or other factors intervene.^[7] This structure ensures balanced competition, as each team gets an equal number of offensive chances in a full game.

Overview

Definition

An inning serves as the fundamental unit of play in baseball, a bat-and-ball sport, wherein each team alternates between batting and fielding to score runs.^[4] During this division, the batting team attempts to score by hitting a pitched ball and advancing runners around the bases, while the fielding team defends to prevent runs.^[8] A complete inning comprises two half-innings, with the visiting team batting first in the "top" half and the home team in the "bottom" half.^[9] The term "inning" is primarily associated with baseball, though it originates from similar structures in related bat-and-ball games like cricket.^[8] Etymologically, it derives from the Old English "innung," meaning a taking in or putting in, evolving to denote a unit or division of play.^[10] In baseball contexts, the word first appeared in the mid-19th century, reflecting the sport's early codification around 1845. Innings structure baseball games by providing discrete opportunities for scoring, distinguishing the sport from continuous-play formats like soccer, which use fixed periods or halves without such alternating turns at bat.^[4] This framework ensures balanced participation, with a standard game consisting of nine innings unless altered by specific rules.^[9]

Basic Structure

An inning in baseball consists of two half-innings, providing each team with a turn at bat. The top half-inning begins with the visiting team batting while the home team takes the field defensively, followed by the bottom half-inning where the roles reverse, with the home team batting against the visiting team's defense.^[11] Each half-inning ends when the defensive team records three outs, marking the completion of that team's offensive opportunity and transitioning to the next half. This three-out limit ensures a structured progression, preventing indefinite play within a half-inning.^[11] A standard Major League Baseball regulation game comprises nine full innings, unless the home team holds the lead after the top of the ninth, in which case the bottom half is not played and the game concludes.^[11] This nine-inning framework establishes the game's foundational duration, balancing opportunities for both teams.^[11] The core of an inning's structure lies in the alternation of offensive (batting) and defensive (fielding) roles between half-innings, fostering tactical shifts as teams adapt to switching responsibilities after every three outs.^[11]

Baseball Gameplay

Half-Inning Sequence

A half-inning in baseball begins when the umpire signals "Play," positioning the offensive team's leadoff batter in the batter's box while the pitcher prepares to deliver from the mound, adhering to the pre-submitted batting order reported by the team's manager.^[9] This sequence continues with successive batters entering the box in lineup order, each facing the pitcher until reaching base safely or being retired, allowing potential baserunners to accumulate as the offensive team aims to score runs by advancing around the bases.^[9] During the half-inning, the offensive progression unfolds as batters may reach base through base hits, walks, or defensive errors, with existing runners advancing on these plays, stolen bases, or fielder's choices, all while touching each base in order to maintain legal positioning.^[9] Runners circle the bases counterclockwise, scoring by safely touching home plate, which credits a run to the team's tally provided no third out nullifies it, such as through a force play before the runner crosses.^[9] This flow builds opportunities for multi-run innings when multiple batters reach base without immediate retirements. The defensive team's objective is to limit scoring by inducing retirements through pitched strikes that lead to unproductive contact, such as fly balls caught in the air or ground balls resulting in force outs at bases, culminating in the third out that ends the half-inning.^[9] Unlike the full inning structure of two half-innings divided by three outs each, the half-inning focuses solely on one team's at-bats until the defense secures the required retirements.^[9] For instance, a routine half-inning might conclude "3-up-3-down," where three batters come to the plate and are retired without any reaching base, minimizing offensive threat.^[9] In contrast, a productive half-inning could see the leadoff batter walk, followed by a single advancing the runner to third, and a subsequent hit allowing two runs to score before the third out, demonstrating how chained offensive successes can yield multiple points in a single sequence.^[9]

Out Mechanisms

In baseball, an out is recorded when the defensive team retires an offensive player or runner, advancing toward the requirement of three outs to end a half-inning.^[12] The Official Baseball Rules outline numerous specific scenarios under Rule 5.09 for making an out, categorized broadly into primary mechanisms that encompass the majority of plays. These mechanisms directly influence defensive strategy, as teams must efficiently record exactly three outs per half-inning to limit the opposing team's scoring opportunities.^[12] Strikeout occurs when the batter accumulates three strikes, defined as pitches outside the strike zone missed by the batter, called strikes by the umpire, or foul balls not caught (except foul tips).^[12] If the third strike is not caught by the catcher and first base is unoccupied or there are two outs, the batter may attempt to reach first base safely, but otherwise, the batter is automatically out upon the third strike.^[12] This mechanism emphasizes pitcher control and batter discipline.^[13] Fly out happens when a batter hits a fair or foul ball into the air that is legally caught by a fielder before it touches the ground or is touched by another player.^[12] The catch must be voluntary and secure, with the fielder maintaining control while the ball is in play; if the ball is dropped or juggled excessively, no out is recorded.^[12] Fly outs, including pop flies, often involve outfielders, altering defensive positioning based on batter tendencies. Line drive out, a subset of fly outs, results from a hard-hit ball traveling in a straight, low trajectory that is caught directly off the bat, typically by infielders or shallow outfielders.^[12] Unlike higher-arcing fly balls, line drives require quick reflexes due to their speed, and they pose higher risk to fielders from potential injury. Groundout is recorded when a batter hits a fair ball that rolls or bounces on the ground and is fielded by a defensive player, who throws to first base before the batter reaches it safely.^[12] This out relies on infielder speed and arm strength, with double plays often extending from ground balls to record multiple outs efficiently. Force out applies when a runner is compelled to advance to the next base due to the batter becoming a runner or another baserunner's movement, and the defense tags the base or the runner before they arrive.^[12] Common on ground balls with runners on base, this mechanism ends force situations (e.g., at second or third) and is integral to turning double plays.^[13] Tag out occurs when a fielder, holding the ball securely, physically tags a runner who is not on or returning to a base during live play.^[12] The tag must touch the runner while the ball is live and the runner is attempting to advance or return; this is distinct from force outs and is used for pickoffs or after catches, requiring precise timing to avoid obstruction penalties. Appeal play allows the defense to record an out by appealing a runner's missed base or improper advance, either verbally or by tagging the base or runner while the ball is live or dead (depending on the situation).^[12] Appeals must be made before the next pitch or play, and they are rare but critical for correcting baserunning errors like failing to tag up after a fly ball.^[13] Interference results in an out when an offensive player (batter, runner, or teammate) illegally hinders a fielder's attempt to field a batted or thrown ball, such as a batter swinging across a catcher's path or a runner colliding with an infielder.^[12] Umpires judge intent and materiality, with penalties varying by situation (e.g., batter out with runners returning); this promotes fair play. Runner's lane violation outs the batter-runner if they run outside the three-foot-wide lane approaching first base on a ground ball, interfering with the fielder taking the throw.^[12] This rule, enforced only on plays at first, deters erratic running paths that could disrupt throws.^[13] A notable rule-specific mechanism is the infield fly rule, which declares an automatic out on a fair fly ball (not a line drive) with runners on first and second (or bases loaded) and fewer than two outs, if the ball can be caught by an infielder with ordinary effort.^[12] Enacted to prevent infielders from deliberately dropping catches to force double or triple plays, it protects runners from unnecessary risks.

Rules and Variations

Standard Game Length

In Major League Baseball (MLB), a regulation game consists of nine innings, each comprising two half-innings—one for each team—during which the visiting team bats first in the top half and the home team in the bottom half. A game is considered complete after nine full innings unless the home team is leading after the top of the ninth, in which case the bottom half is not played; however, if the score is tied or the visitors are ahead after the top of the ninth, the home team must bat in the bottom half to potentially complete the game. In youth and amateur leagues, mercy rules often allow games to end prematurely to promote player safety and sportsmanship, typically after seven innings if one team leads by a substantial margin, such as 10 or more runs, though exact thresholds vary by league or tournament guidelines. For example, Little League Baseball implements a 10-run rule after four innings in certain divisions, shortening games when the margin becomes insurmountable. Games interrupted by weather or other unforeseen circumstances, such as darkness or facility issues, may be suspended and resumed from the exact point of interruption, with partial innings counting toward the total if the game reaches regulation length upon resumption. In international play and some domestic leagues, doubleheaders are shortened to seven innings per game to manage scheduling and player fatigue.

Extra Innings and Tiebreakers

In baseball, extra innings are played when a game remains tied after the standard nine innings, with each additional inning following the same structure as regular innings—three outs per team per full inning—until one team scores more runs than the other, thereby determining a winner.^[4] These innings can theoretically continue indefinitely, as there are no time limits imposed on professional games, allowing for potentially marathon contests that test players' endurance and strategy.^[4] To expedite resolutions and reduce game lengths in regular-season play, Major League Baseball (MLB) implemented a tiebreaker rule starting in 2020, which was made permanent in 2023: at the beginning of each extra half-inning (starting from the 10th), a runner is automatically placed on second base. This "ghost runner"—the player in the batting order immediately preceding that half-inning's leadoff hitter (or a substitute)—is in scoring position to increase the likelihood of runs being scored quickly, though the rule does not apply to postseason games, where traditional extra innings without the placed runner are used.^[14]^[15] Historically, extra-inning games without such tiebreakers could extend far beyond typical durations, as evidenced by MLB's longest game, a 26-inning tie on May 1, 1920, between the Brooklyn Robins and Boston Braves, which lasted nearly four hours before being called due to darkness.^[16] This lack of time constraints underscores baseball's emphasis on playing until a victor emerges, though modern rules like the 2020 tiebreaker aim to balance tradition with practical scheduling needs. In variations across other levels of play, Minor League Baseball (MiLB) adopted a similar ghost runner rule in 2020 for all extra innings at every level, placing the runner on second to mirror MLB's approach and shorten games, though specific implementations may differ by league or season.^[17]

Terminology

Positional Terms

In baseball, the top of the inning designates the initial half of each full inning, during which the visiting team assumes the offensive role at bat while the home team mans the defensive positions on the field.^[18] This sequence ensures the visiting team completes its turn before the home team responds. Conversely, the bottom of the inning comprises the subsequent half, where the home team bats and the visiting team shifts to defense, completing the full inning once three outs are recorded for the batting side.^[18] This division reflects the alternating nature of team responsibilities throughout the contest.^[19] Innings are enumerated sequentially from the first through the ninth in a regulation game, providing a structured progression to track the match's advancement.^[19] Common shorthand expressions, such as "top of the seventh" or "bottom of the third," precisely indicate both the specific half-inning and its numerical position, facilitating clear communication among players, officials, and spectators.^[18] The dugout serves as the enclosed bench area reserved for each team's non-active players and coaches during the opponent's half-inning, maintaining order and preventing interference with play; players must remain there unless warming up or entering the game.^[19] Adjacent to the dugout, the on-deck circle is the designated semicircular space where the impending batter prepares by taking practice swings, positioned near the home plate area to allow visibility of the current at-bat while adhering to field boundaries.^[19] During their team's offensive half-inning, the on-deck batter uses this circle immediately before stepping into the batter's box, ensuring smooth transitions in the batting order.^[20]

Scoring and Outcome Terms

In baseball, runs scored during an inning are tallied for each team and recorded sequentially to track the game's progress, such as a 2-1 score after three full innings indicating two total runs for the home team and one for the visitors.^[21] This per-inning breakdown forms the line score in box notations, where runs are listed horizontally across innings (e.g., 0 1 2 0 3 for a team's totals through five innings), allowing fans and analysts to identify pivotal scoring bursts.^[22] A "clean inning" refers to a defensive half-inning where the pitching team allows no hits or walks, resulting in the side being retired without baserunners advancing.^[23] In contrast, a "big inning" describes an offensive half-inning in which a team scores at least three runs, often through a combination of hits, walks, and timely errors by the defense, shifting momentum dramatically.^[24] Relatedly, a "crooked number" denotes any run total of two or more in an inning, emphasizing inefficiency in pitching beyond a single run allowed.^[25] The "go-ahead run" is the specific runner or score that gives a team the lead for the first time or reclaims it after being tied, with its significance amplified in late innings where it can decide the outcome.^[26] Inning-ending outcomes highlight defensive efficiency; for instance, "three up, three down" signifies a perfect defensive half-inning where the three batters faced are retired in order without anyone reaching base, concluding the frame swiftly after the standard three outs.^[27] Alternatively, an inning may end abruptly on a double play, where two outs are recorded simultaneously—such as a grounder inducing a force out at second and a throw to first—accelerating the transition to the next half-inning.^[4]

History and Etymology

Origins in Early Baseball

The concept of an inning in baseball traces its roots to earlier bat-and-ball games in England, particularly rounders and cricket, where teams alternated turns at batting in structured units known as "innings." In rounders, each team's inning continued until all batters were out or the bases were occupied, allowing for scoring opportunities similar to baseball's half-inning structure.^[28] This alternation ensured fairness by giving each side equal chances to bat and field, a principle that influenced early American adaptations of the game.^[29] The inning as a formalized element emerged in the mid-19th century with the development of modern baseball rules in the United States. The 1845 Knickerbocker Rules, codified by the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club of New York, did not specify a fixed number of innings; instead, games concluded when one team scored 21 runs (called "aces") after an equal number of turns at bat, or "hands," for each side. This structure, while promoting balanced play, often led to prolonged matches due to high-scoring tendencies and the absence of strikes, allowing batters to wait for favorable pitches.^[30] Alexander Cartwright, a key member of the Knickerbocker Club and primary author of these rules, played a pivotal role in shifting baseball toward a more organized framework that emphasized fairness through alternating turns.^[31] His contributions included defining the diamond-shaped field and out mechanisms, which helped standardize the "hand" as a precursor to the inning, reducing disputes in informal play.^[32] However, Cartwright's direct invention of the inning concept has been overstated; it evolved collectively from existing games rather than as his singular creation.^[32] By the 1850s, the limitations of the run-based system—such as frequent ties from stalling tactics—prompted reform. At the first National Convention of Base Ball Players in 1857, delegates replaced the 21-run rule with a fixed structure of nine innings per game, initially proposed as seven but amended to nine by Louis F. Wadsworth to better accommodate the nine players per team and extend playtime appropriately.^[30] The 1857 rules also established extra innings, continuing play beyond nine if tied until one team had more runs after equal turns. Early games in the 1860s often adhered to this nine-inning format to mirror team size, establishing it as the norm for competitive matches and laying the groundwork for the modern standard.^[33]

Etymology

The term "inning" originates from the early 18th century, deriving from the Old English word "innung" meaning "entrance" or "taking in," which reflects a team's turn to enter the action and bat. It has been used in baseball since the 19th century, while in cricket, the plural form "innings" is used to denote a team's complete turn at batting.^[6]

Evolution of the Inning Concept

The evolution of the inning concept in baseball reflects adaptations to gameplay dynamics, strategic considerations, and logistical challenges throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Building on the established 9-inning structure from 1857, the rise of doubleheaders—particularly on Sundays to boost attendance amid growing league schedules in the post-1920 era—highlighted pacing issues, though full nine-inning games remained standard until modern adjustments. Post-World War II developments further shaped inning pacing, as the expansion of night games from their 1935 debut became nearly universal by the 1960s, removing the previous urgency imposed by fading daylight and contributing to slower tempos with longer intervals between pitches.^[34] Average game times, which hovered under two hours in the 1920s, gradually extended, prompting ongoing scrutiny of inning efficiency.^[35] Modern updates have prioritized shortening innings and resolving ties more swiftly. In 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic's shortened season, MLB introduced a rule placing a runner on second base at the start of each extra inning (from the 10th onward), accelerating potential scoring and limiting game length; this "ghost runner" provision was made permanent for regular-season play in 2023.^[36] Complementing this, the 2023 introduction of a pitch clock—15 seconds with bases empty and 20 seconds with runners on—reduced average game times by about 30 minutes, directly compressing inning durations by curbing delays.^[37] Globally, international baseball has adopted inning variations to suit tournament formats and competitive equity. The World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC) approved a shift to 7-inning games for major World Cups in January 2019 (except for U-12 events at 6 innings), with implementation beginning in 2021, aiming to lessen pitching demands and enhance balance for nations with shallower rosters, as seen in upsets like the Czech Republic's 5-1 victory over Mexico at the 2021 U-23 World Cup.^[38] In Olympic play, games maintain 9 innings with a 10-run mercy rule after 7 (or 6.5 if the home team leads), but featured unique tiebreakers, such as the 2008 Beijing rule starting the 11th inning and beyond with runners on first and second to hasten resolutions in time-limited events.^[39]

In Other Sports

Softball Adaptations

In fastpitch softball, games consist of seven innings, compared to nine in baseball, while preserving the core structure of half-innings divided by three outs per team.^[40] This shorter duration accommodates the sport's faster pace, with each half-inning allowing one team to bat until three outs are recorded, mirroring baseball's fundamental inning mechanics.^[40] If a game remains tied after seven innings, extra innings proceed under the international tiebreaker rule, which begins each half-inning with a runner placed on second base—the batter who made the last out in the prior inning or the scheduled batter in that spot.^[40] This placement enables the offensive team to attempt scoring with an automatic baserunner, promoting decisive outcomes without indefinite play, and applies across major governing bodies like USA Softball and the World Baseball Softball Confederation.^[41] Slowpitch softball variants typically follow a seven-inning format as well, but incorporate mercy rules to shorten lopsided contests, such as terminating play if one team leads by 20 runs after four innings or by 15 runs after five innings.^[42] These provisions, common in recreational and tournament settings, ensure balanced competition while adapting to the slower pitching style that emphasizes strategy over speed. The compact field dimensions in softball—60-foot baselines versus baseball's 90 feet, and a 43-foot pitching distance compared to 60 feet 6 inches—accelerate gameplay dynamics, resulting in shorter innings due to reduced travel time for runners and quicker defensive exchanges.^[43] This configuration heightens the intensity within each half-inning, as plays develop more rapidly and outs occur with greater frequency.^[44] In cricket, an innings refers to the complete turn of one team at bat, during which the batting side aims to score as many runs as possible while the fielding side seeks to dismiss them by taking wickets. Unlike the structured half-innings in baseball limited to three outs, a cricket innings continues uninterrupted until ten wickets have fallen (dismissing all but one batsman), the captain declares the innings closed to force the opposition to bat, or a predetermined limit on overs or time is reached.^[45] This structure emphasizes endurance and strategic depth, as an innings can span several hours or even multiple days, focusing on accumulating a total score rather than fixed divisions of play.^[46] The primary international formats of cricket adapt the innings concept to varying durations and intensities. In Test cricket, the longest format, each team plays two innings with no overs limit, scheduled over up to five days to test players' technique and patience.^[47] One-Day Internationals (ODIs) feature a single innings per team limited to 50 overs, promoting a balance of aggressive scoring and controlled bowling within a full day of play.^[47] Twenty20 Internationals (T20Is), the shortest format, also use one innings per team but restrict it to 20 overs, resulting in high-scoring, fast-paced matches typically completed in about three hours.^[47] Related bat-and-ball games incorporate innings with variations influenced by cricket's traditions. Rounders, often seen as a precursor to baseball, structures matches with two innings per team, where the batting side continues until three outs occur or the innings concludes, mirroring early baseball's emphasis on sequential outs rather than unlimited wickets.^[48] In stoolball, a traditional English game, each team has one innings consisting of an agreed number of overs (typically eight deliveries each), ending when all batters are dismissed, the overs are completed, or the team retires, allowing for flexible match lengths often suited to community play.^[49]

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13.1. 1 A match shall be one or two innings for each side according to agreement reached before the match. 13.1.2 It may be agreed to limit any innings to a ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Cricket explained (for novices) | ESPNcricinfo.com
One side bats while the other fields, just as in baseball, and similarly one side attempts to score runs while the other side tries to stop them, and the side ...
[49]
Formats of the Game | About ICC Cricket
Nov 7, 2023 · These are one-innings matches of 50 overs per side, in which teams with a blend of technique, speed and skill are expected to do well. The ICC's ...
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[PDF] OFFICIAL ROUNDERS RULES 2020-2022
In a match, each side has two innings unless other arrangements are made by the umpires in agreement with the captains, e.g the light may be waning and it can ...Missing: structure | Show results with:structure
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Rules of stoolball
6.3 During their innings both batters shall remain within reach of their wicket or stake (“in their ground”) or they run the risk of being “run-out” by the ...