Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Intelsat I

Intelsat I, also known as Early Bird, was the world's first commercial communications satellite, launched on April 6, 1965, into geosynchronous orbit to enable direct transatlantic telecommunications between North America and Europe, including telephone, telegraph, television, and facsimile services.^[1]^[2]^[3] Developed by the Communications Satellite Corporation (Comsat) and built by Hughes Aircraft Company, Intelsat I represented a pivotal advancement in satellite technology, stemming from the earlier Syncom series but with enhanced electronics and solar arrays for improved reliability in commercial applications.^[4]^[3] The satellite, weighing 68 kg at launch and 39 kg at the beginning of its operational life, featured two transponders capable of supporting 240 voice circuits or one television channel, powered by solar cells and batteries in a spin-stabilized design.^[3]^[5]^[6] Positioned at 28° west longitude over the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 35,800 km above the equator, Intelsat I achieved operational status on June 28, 1965, after initial testing, and exceeded its planned 18-month lifespan by serving reliably for about four years until its retirement in August 1969.^[2]^[3]^[5] It was deactivated and placed into reserve status in January 1969, before being reactivated in June 1969 to broadcast the Apollo 11 moon landing to global audiences, marking one of its most notable contributions to live international broadcasting.^[1]^[2] As the inaugural satellite of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat), formed in 1964 by 11 founding nations to establish a global satellite network, Intelsat I demonstrated the feasibility of geosynchronous satellites for commercial use, doubling transatlantic telephone capacity and pioneering the phrase "live via satellite" for instantaneous global connectivity.^[1]^[5] Its success paved the way for subsequent generations of Intelsat satellites, transforming international communications and enabling the expansion of a worldwide system that simplified ground station operations by eliminating the need for tracking antennas.^[3]^[4]

Background

Origins of Intelsat Program

The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat) was established on August 20, 1964, through the signing of international agreements by representatives from 11 nations, including the United States, United Kingdom, and France, forming an intergovernmental consortium aimed at developing and operating a global commercial communications satellite system.^[7]^[8] This initiative sought to provide equitable access to space-based telecommunications infrastructure, addressing the growing demand for international voice, telegraph, and data services beyond the capabilities of existing terrestrial systems.^[9] Central to Intelsat's formation was the role of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT), created by the U.S. Congress via the 1962 Communications Satellite Act as a private entity to spearhead American involvement in satellite technology.^[7] COMSAT served as the U.S. signatory and prime manager for the consortium's space segment, overseeing satellite procurement, launch, and operations during the early years, with an initial capitalization of $200 million to fund development.^[10]^[11] The 1964 Interim Agreement provided a temporary framework for cooperation, establishing the Interim Communications Satellite Committee to guide initial activities, which was later superseded by the Definitive Agreement signed in 1971, formalizing Intelsat's permanent structure and ownership model.^[12]^[13] Geopolitically, Intelsat emerged amid Cold War rivalries, where the United States viewed satellite communications as a tool for technological leadership and influence in the global information race against the Soviet Union, particularly following the 1957 Sputnik launch that heightened space competition.^[9]^[14] This urgency was amplified by the limitations of submarine cables like TAT-1, the first transatlantic telephone cable operational since 1956, which supported only 36 simultaneous voice circuits at a cost exceeding $30 million, constraining transoceanic connectivity for expanding post-war telecommunications needs.^[7] The Soviet Molniya satellite system, launched starting in 1965, posed a direct competitive threat by enabling high-latitude communications, prompting Western nations to accelerate Intelsat's deployment for strategic transatlantic and global coverage.^[15]^[16] Intelsat I became the program's first operational satellite, marking the transition from experimental to commercial service.^[7]

Project Early Bird

Project Early Bird, the codenamed initiative for Intelsat I, was spearheaded by the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) as its inaugural effort to deploy a commercial geostationary communications satellite, with NASA providing essential launch support under interagency agreements. Established following the 1962 Communications Satellite Act, COMSAT initiated the project in early 1964 to pioneer transatlantic telecommunications, building on prior experimental satellites like Syncom. This endeavor marked the practical beginning of the Intelsat consortium, formally agreed upon in August 1964 by international telecommunications entities.^[7]^[17] The project's funding was drawn from COMSAT's initial capitalization of $200 million; launch expenses were handled separately through NASA's Delta program. These allocations underscored the venture's focus on cost-effective commercialization, contrasting with earlier government-funded experiments.^[7]^[18] On April 16, 1964, COMSAT awarded the prime contract to Hughes Aircraft Company, selected for their proven expertise in geostationary satellite technology from the Syncom series, which had demonstrated synchronous orbit feasibility. Hughes' role involved adapting Syncom designs to meet commercial requirements, ensuring reliability for operational deployment over the Atlantic.^[17]^[2] The core objectives centered on proving the economic potential of geostationary satellites for international relay services, specifically enabling 240 simultaneous voice circuits or one television channel across the Atlantic to connect Europe and North America in real time. This capacity aimed to supplement existing submarine cables, offering lower costs and higher reliability for telephony and broadcasting, thereby laying the groundwork for a global network.^[16]^[7]

Design and Construction

Spacecraft Architecture

Intelsat I employed a pioneering cylindrical spin-stabilized bus design based on the HS-303 platform developed by Hughes Aircraft Company, marking an evolution from earlier experimental satellites like Syncom. The satellite's structure consisted of a drum-shaped body measuring approximately 72 cm in diameter and 59 cm in height, with a launch mass of 68 kg that reduced to 39 kg at the beginning of life following apogee motor firing. This compact configuration allowed for efficient deployment via the Delta launch vehicle and provided the foundational stability for geosynchronous operations.^[3]^[6]^[19] Power for the spacecraft was generated by approximately 6,000 body-mounted solar cells covering the cylindrical surface, delivering an initial output of 45 watts to support all subsystems. Nickel-cadmium batteries supplemented this during periods of eclipse, ensuring continuous functionality despite the satellite's position over the Atlantic. The design prioritized reliability in the harsh space environment, with the solar array's output degrading over time but maintaining operational levels above 33 watts for at least three years.^[20] Attitude control relied on the satellite's spin at 180 rpm, which imparted gyroscopic stability to maintain orientation without complex active systems. Precession maneuvers for initial pointing and limited station-keeping were performed using pulsed axial thrusters synchronized with the spin cycle to apply torque and adjust the spin axis as needed. This approach simplified the architecture while enabling precise alignment for the primary communication payload.^[20]^[21] Orbit circularization was achieved via a Starfinder apogee kick motor integrated into the bus, fired on the sixth apogee pass to transfer the satellite from its initial elliptical trajectory to geosynchronous orbit. The overall bus design emphasized minimalism and robustness, supporting an 18-month design life that exceeded expectations through 1969.^[3]

Payload and Subsystems

The payload of Intelsat I featured two C-band transponders designed for transatlantic voice and television transmission, marking a key advancement in commercial satellite communications technology. These transponders operated with an uplink frequency around 6 GHz (specifically 6.301–6.390 GHz) and a downlink frequency around 4 GHz (4.081–4.161 GHz), providing a combined bandwidth of 50 MHz (25 MHz per transponder).^[6]^[22] Signal amplification was handled by traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs), with each transponder delivering approximately 6 W of output power and an effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of 6.5 dBW at the edge of Earth coverage.^[6]^[23] This configuration enabled the satellite to support up to 240 two-way voice circuits or a single black-and-white television channel, though not simultaneously due to bandwidth constraints.^[6] The telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) subsystem facilitated ground control using C-band frequencies, including 6.168–6.182 GHz for commands and 3.945–3.955 GHz for telemetry, with tone-based modulation for reliability.^[20] Reliability was enhanced through redundancy in critical payload elements, such as dual TWTAs per transponder (one active and one standby), supporting the satellite's intended 1.5-year design life in geosynchronous orbit.^[20]^[24]

Launch and Deployment

Pre-Launch Preparations

The assembly of Intelsat I, known as Early Bird, took place at the Hughes Aircraft Company's Space and Communications Group facility in El Segundo, California. Engineers there conducted the primary integration of the spacecraft's components, including the cylindrical bus structure, solar cells, batteries, and transponders based on the HS-303 design derived from the earlier Syncom satellites. Key steps involved aligning the apogee kick motor with assistance from specialists like Herschel Huffman and Bob Piety, preparing the motor under Charlie Murray, and verifying the hydrogen peroxide reaction control system. The assembly process was completed in early 1965, culminating in the spacecraft's shipment to Cape Kennedy via transport overseen by Mickey Haney, despite logistical delays.^[25]^[3]^[20] Following shipment, the spacecraft arrived at Cape Kennedy for environmental testing and final preparations in collaboration with NASA. Testing included vibration simulations to replicate launch stresses, thermal vacuum trials to mimic space conditions, and electromagnetic compatibility assessments to ensure subsystem interoperability. These evaluations, overseen by Hughes personnel such as Bill Murray for telemetry data analysis and Ray Bowerman for ground checkout equipment, confirmed the satellite's readiness after its journey from El Segundo. The tests highlighted the robustness of the spin-stabilized design, which relied on despun antennas for precise Earth pointing.^[25]^[26]^[20] Integration with the Thrust-Augmented Delta (TAD) launch vehicle occurred at Cape Kennedy's Launch Complex 17A in late March 1965. Hughes teams, including Stan Peterson and Ross Cooper, mated the 68 kg (150 lb) spacecraft to the vehicle's third stage and apogee motor on the gantry, performing final communications system checks from the seventh deck. This phase ensured secure attachment and alignment for the planned geosynchronous transfer orbit.^[25]^[3]^[27] Pre-launch rehearsals focused on coordination with international ground stations to validate command and telemetry links. Facilities at Andover, Maine (operated by AT&T for COMSAT), Goonhilly Downs in the United Kingdom, and Pleumeur-Bodou in France conducted simulations for signal acquisition and antenna tracking, building on infrastructure from prior experiments like Telstar. These efforts, involving Jerry Grover for telemetry monitoring and Jim Powell for control system verification eight days prior to liftoff, prepared the network for the satellite's activation over the Atlantic.^[25]^[3]^[28]

Orbital Insertion

Intelsat I, also known as Early Bird, was launched on April 6, 1965, at 23:48 UTC from Launch Complex 17A at Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral) in Florida, aboard a Thor-Delta D rocket.^[29]^[3] The Thor-Delta D was a three-stage expendable launch vehicle derived from the Thor ballistic missile, with the first stage consisting of a Thor core augmented by three solid-propellant Castor-1 boosters for enhanced thrust during ascent.^[30] The launch marked the first successful deployment of a commercial geosynchronous communications satellite, initiating real-time transatlantic telecommunications capabilities.^[2] The ascent followed a standard three-stage profile to achieve geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). The first stage, powered by the Thor's Rocketdyne MB-3 engine and the strap-on boosters, burned for approximately 2 minutes, providing initial velocity and separating shortly after burnout to clear the dense lower atmosphere.^[31] The second stage, an Aerojet AJ10-118 liquid-propellant engine, ignited immediately after, burning for about 5 minutes to further accelerate the vehicle through the upper atmosphere and into a suborbital trajectory.^[31] The third stage, a solid-propellant Altair motor, then fired to inject the payload into an elliptical GTO with a perigee altitude of 185 km and an apogee of 35,789 km, at an initial inclination of 16.7°; separation from the third stage occurred around 26 minutes and 32 seconds after liftoff, after which the satellite coasted toward its first apogee.^[3] On April 7, 1965, the satellite's onboard solid-propellant apogee motor—a Starfinder AKM—was fired during the sixth apogee pass, circularizing the orbit at an altitude of 35,786 km with the initial 16.7° inclination.^[3] This maneuver positioned Intelsat I over the Atlantic Ocean at 28° W longitude, enabling initial synchronization efforts. Ground controllers at tracking stations in Madrid, Spain, and Pleumeur-Bodou, France, quickly confirmed the satellite's spin stabilization at approximately 90 rpm, ensuring proper attitude control and antenna deployment for subsequent operations.^[1]^[3]

Operations

Initial Activation

Following its launch on April 6, 1965, Intelsat I underwent a series of post-deployment checks before full activation. The apogee motor was fired on April 7, 1965, to circularize the orbit and perform inclination reduction maneuvers, minimizing the initial approximately 28.5-degree inclination from the launch site. The satellite's Tracking, Telemetry, and Command (TT&C) subsystem was brought online shortly after, with the first beacon signal acquisition occurring by late April 1965, enabling ground controllers at the COMSAT facilities to verify systems and assess the nickel-cadmium battery system's health, which provided reliable power for initial operations.^[32]^[3] This was followed by transatlantic testing with European earth stations, including preliminary voice and data relays to validate the C-band transponder's ability to handle up to 240 two-way circuits or a single television channel. The first tests of the transponder took place on May 31, 1965.^[3] One of the earliest public demonstrations came on June 28, 1965, when Intelsat I relayed transmissions as part of the commercial service inauguration ceremony, including U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson's address to European audiences, highlighting the satellite's capacity for real-time international broadcasting and paving the way for routine service.^[33]^[34]

Service Achievements

Intelsat I, also known as Early Bird, entered full commercial service on June 28, 1965, providing the first continuous transatlantic communications link between North America and Europe.^[35] The satellite relayed up to 240 two-way voice circuits or a single black-and-white television channel across the Atlantic, enabling regular telephone traffic and scheduled TV broadcasts that connected millions of users for the first time via a geosynchronous satellite.^[1]^[35] Following successful initial activation tests that confirmed its transponder functionality and orbital stability, these capabilities marked a pivotal shift from experimental to operational satellite communications.^[35] Among its key operational milestones, Intelsat I facilitated landmark live transmissions that demonstrated the potential of satellite broadcasting. In 1966, it relayed live coverage of FIFA World Cup matches from England to North America, including the final match broadcast by NBC in the United States and reaching an estimated global audience of 400 million viewers.^[36] By 1969, after a brief reserve period, the satellite was reactivated in June to support the Apollo 11 mission, routing voice circuits across the Atlantic for real-time mission communications and contributing to the global relay of the first Moon landing coverage.^[2]^[35] To sustain its geosynchronous position at 28° West longitude over the Atlantic, Intelsat I underwent periodic station-keeping maneuvers using its spin-stabilized design and hydrogen peroxide jet control system derived from earlier Syncom technology.^[3]^[35] These adjustments, performed every few months, corrected for orbital drifts and ensured continuous coverage, though they progressively depleted the satellite's limited propellant reserves over its multi-year service.^[35] Intelsat I demonstrated exceptional operational reliability during its active period from 1965 to 1969, achieving high availability with zero outages attributable to the spacecraft itself—all service interruptions stemmed from ground segment issues.^[35] Minor power-related challenges, such as battery voltage fluctuations, were managed effectively, underscoring the robustness of its solar-powered subsystems despite the era's technological constraints.^[35]

End of Life and Legacy

Decommissioning

Intelsat I, after providing continuous commercial service for over four years—far exceeding its original 18-month design life—was placed on reserve status and deactivated in January 1969.^[3] The satellite was briefly reactivated on June 29, 1969, to handle additional transatlantic traffic during the Apollo 11 lunar landing coverage, marking one of its final contributions before final transmissions ceased on August 13, 1969, following the handover of primary operations to Intelsat II satellites in the Atlantic region.^[37] It was briefly reactivated in 1990 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of its launch.^[29] With no active deorbit capabilities available at the time, Intelsat I was left in its geostationary orbit at approximately 28° W longitude, where atmospheric drag is negligible at such high altitudes.^[3] Projections for natural orbital decay indicate that the satellite will remain in orbit for centuries without posing a reentry risk to Earth, as geostationary altitudes result in extremely slow perturbations over time.^[38]

Historical Significance

Intelsat I, launched in 1965 and known as Early Bird, marked a pivotal advancement in global telecommunications as the world's first commercial communications satellite, demonstrating the practical viability of geostationary orbit for reliable international signal relay between North America and Europe.^[7]^[39] This achievement built on experimental predecessors like Syncom but shifted satellite technology from government-led research to commercial application, establishing a model for international collaboration through the newly formed International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), founded by 11 nations and which later grew to include over 100 member countries and symbolized cooperative efforts amid the Cold War space race.^[7]^[3] Economically, Intelsat I transformed transatlantic communications by drastically lowering costs compared to submarine cables like TAT-1, offering nearly ten times the capacity at one-tenth the price and reducing carrier costs per circuit from nearly $100,000 to a few thousand dollars, which in turn cut consumer rates for international calls from over $10 per minute to less than $1 per minute.^[7] This affordability spurred widespread adoption of satellite links for telephony and television, enabling real-time global news dissemination and fostering economic growth in media and telecommunications industries by making instantaneous transoceanic exchanges feasible for businesses and broadcasters.^[7] Technologically, Intelsat I introduced key innovations such as spin-stabilization for attitude control, which relied on gyroscopic effects to maintain orientation without complex systems, and C-band transponders operating in the 4-6 GHz range to handle 240 voice circuits or one television channel.^[3]^[4] These features set precedents adopted in subsequent Intelsat series, including Intelsat II through IVA, which retained spin-stabilization and C-band operations to expand coverage while building on Early Bird's reliable design for enhanced capacity and global reach.^[40]^[7] Culturally, Intelsat I facilitated landmark live global events, such as the 1967 "Our World" broadcast—a collaborative production reaching an estimated 400 million viewers across 26 countries, featuring performances like the Beatles' "All You Need Is Love" and underscoring the satellite's role in uniting diverse audiences in real time.^[41] By enabling such instantaneous international sharing of news, music, and events, it not only revolutionized broadcasting but also embodied the era's optimism for technology-driven global interconnectedness.^[39]

References

[1]
Meet Intelsat 1
Intelsat 1, also known as Early Bird, was the first commercial communications satellite to launch in geosynchronous orbit. Early Bird's launch represents ...
[2]
This Week in NASA History — Intelsat I: The “Early Bird” of Satellites
Feb 25, 2010 · On April 6, 1965, NASA launched the world's first commercial communications satellite Intelsat I (aka Early Bird) into a geosynchronous orbit above earth.
[3]
Intelsat-1 - Gunter's Space Page
The satellite was launched into synchronous orbit on 6 April 1965. It was placed in commercial service on June 28. Early Bird's design stemmed from the Syncom ...
[4]
Model, Communications Satellite, Intelsat I
Launched in April 1965, the International Telecommunication Satellite Organization's Intelsat I (also known as "Early Bird") was the first satellite to provide ...
[5]
First Commercial Satellite | IEEE Communications Society
The first commercial communications satellite, Early Bird, later named Intelsat 1, is launched into orbit from Cape Kennedy on April 6. The 85-pound satellite ...
[6]
Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible
Sep 26, 2023 · On August 20, 1964, agreements were signed which created the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). By the end of ...
[7]
[PDF] INTELSAT: Transforming a Market Leader to Meet Changing Global ...
INTELSAT was established in 1964 when representatives of eleven nations signed international agreements setting forth interim arrangements for a global ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[8]
Intelsat as a Model for International AGI Governance - Forethought
Mar 12, 2025 · The 1962 Communications Satellite Act set up the Communications Satellite Corporation (Comsat) with a mandate to work with other nations to set ...
[9]
Comsat | Satellite Communications, Telecommunications & Space ...
Agencies from 17 other countries joined Comsat in 1964 in forming the International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium (Intelsat) for the purpose of ...
[10]
First Commercial Communications Satellite Is Launched - EBSCO
COMSAT became the manager of the space segment of the International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT), with an initial membership of eleven ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
[PDF] The Legal Commitment of the United States to the INTELSAT System
2 This policy was solidified in a 1964 Interim. Agreement, 3 which was replaced in 1971 by a Final Agreement that established the International ...
[12]
Intelsat - Oxford Public International Law
4 Interim INTELSAT was established in 1964 by the Agreement establishing Interim Arrangements for a Global Commercial Communications Satellite System ('Interim ...
[13]
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Chapter 6)
Jun 22, 2017 · 1964 is the year Intelsat was established, and 1978 is the first year Intelsat published an Annual Report, which presents comprehensive ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[14]
[PDF] -. 2.f - NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
also exists the Soviet Union's Molniya satellite system, which in some form is a potential competitor for international teleconmuntcations business. Many other ...
[15]
[PDF] INTELSAT: Greater Price Flexibility to Preserve the System
The United States feared that four such satellites could blanket the entire world and give the Soviet Union domination over the international communications ...
[16]
[PDF] COMSAT at 10
The event marked the first step toward a worldwide network of satellites linking peoples of many nations. Early Bird was the only mode of live transatlantic ...
[17]
Comsat, a Winner in Space, Faces Problems at Home; Battle Raging ...
The technological proof had been established last year by the Early Bird satellite. ... Satellites cost about $3-million each, including an allowance for research ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[18]
Intelsat 1 Quicklook
18 months. Launch Facts. Name, Int'l Desig. Date, Site, Vehicle, Orbit, Mass(kg). Notes. Intelsat 1 (Early Bird), 1965-028A, 4/6/65, ESMC, Delta D, GEO, 39.
[19]
Hughes: HS-303 - Gunter's Space Page
### Summary of HS-303 Bus Specifications for Intelsat I
[20]
[PDF] Communication Satellites 1958 to 1986 - DTIC
Oct 1, 1984 · This report describes communication satellites launched or planned by 1986, including their development, purpose, characteristics, and ...
[21]
[PDF] I SPACECRAFT ATTITUDE CONTROL DURING THRUSTING ...
Active attitude control is achieved by a closed-loop con- trol system which includes sensors, compensation networks, control logic, actuating devices to apply ...
[22]
[PDF] Early Bird (Intelsat I) - Frequency Plan Satellites
Page 1. 5925. 3700. Omnidiretional. Omnidiretional. 6425. 4200. Uplink. Downlink. Early Bird (Intelsat I). Frequency Plan. 6301,00. 4081,00. 6390,00.Missing: rate rpm
[23]
[PDF] 19710021117.pdf - NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
6.5 DBW("). ONE OF THREE MODES POSSIBLE WI TH THIS TRANSPONDER. ALSO ... INTELSAT I..Y lColo,r. TYL. SATELLITE CHARACTERISTICS. -. EIRP. COST ($ MILLIONS) ...
[24]
[PDF] EohmhEmhEEEmhI Emmmhmhhhmmhls ELEm~hhE - DTIC
May 19, 1985 · (and one redundant) transponder in place of Early Bird's dual (but only 25 MHz each) ... Monthly Technical Status Report for INTELSAT Satellites ...
[25]
A Part of History–Hughes News April 9, 1965 By Jud LaFlash ...
Sep 19, 2014 · On April 6, 1965, the achievement that is Early Bird was known worldwide in a matter of hours – even minutes – for its launch was fully documented.Missing: assembly | Show results with:assembly
[26]
[PDF] ENVIRONMENTAL TEST- PROGRAM AND SYSTEM EVALUATION ...
During prototype testing, failures of the TWT's occurred during thermal vacuum and vibration. The defective tubes were replaced with spares, and the. Watkin- ...Missing: Intelsat | Show results with:Intelsat
[27]
https://www.astronautix.com/d/delta.html
[28]
BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Satellite pioneers remembered
Jul 12, 2002 · Forty years on, the three Earth Stations involved in that pioneering test, at Andover in the USA, Pleumeur Bodou in France and Goonhilly, linked ...
[29]
INTELSAT 1, the First Commercial Communications Satellite, is ...
NASA launched the satellite built by Hughes Aircraft Corporation on April 6, 1965 at 6:48pm E.S.T. from Complex 17a at Cape Kennedy, Florida. Early Bird was ...
[30]
http://www.astronautix.com/d/delta-d.html
[31]
https://www.braeunig.us/space/specs/delta.htm
[32]
[PDF] BEYOND THE IONOSPHERE: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication
To the pioneering dreamers and doers of satellite communications: Arthur C. Clarke, who envisioned the geosynchronous orbit and a global.
[33]
[PDF] A D -1ATION - DTIC
On June 28, 1965, Early Bird relayed a telephone call from President Lyndon Johnson to the leaders of six European nations, saying, "This moment marks a.
[34]
[PDF] NASA COMPENDIUM OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS ...
The compendium, first issued in 1971, sponsored by Communications Programs, Office of Applications, was assembled by the -Computer Sciences Corporation ( ...
[35]
[PDF] When football went global: televising the 1966 World Cup
live transmission through the 'Early Bird' satellite. The complete list of all the 75 countries that joined the broadcasting of the. 1966 World Cup, either ...Missing: Intelsat | Show results with:Intelsat
[36]
Early Bird Satellite Launch - White Eagle Aerospace
Apr 2, 2012 · Spin-stabilized about its longitudinal axis, the satellite weighed just 85 lbs. Power was provided by an array of 6,000 solar cells covering ...Missing: attitude control
[37]
GEO Satellites Don't Decay in 38 Years, Do They? - Ansys
Mar 17, 2023 · If you think of GEOs as orbits near the equator with a small inclination, then no, your satellite will not decay within 40 years, or anytime soon thereafter.
[38]
Intelsat History
Early Bird (Intelsat I) is launched into synchronous orbit. This is the world's first commercial communications satellite and “live via satellite” is born.
[39]
Intelsat-2 - Gunter's Space Page
Sep 2, 2025 · The Intelsat II series of satellites, first launched in 1966, marked the third generation of communications satellites developed by Hughes.Missing: deactivation August 1969 handover
[40]
Remembering the 'Our World' Global Broadcast 50 Years Later
Jun 20, 2017 · Broadcasters in the participating countries received the live black-and-white video feed using Intelsat 1, known as 'Early Bird' because it was ...Missing: 1966 FIFA Cup