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Program

A program (British English: programme) is a plan of action, a of events, or a set of instructions designed to achieve a specific outcome. The term has diverse applications across fields, including , , , and more. In and , a refers to a —a sequence of instructions executed by a computer—or the process of software programming. In and , it denotes broadcast programs on radio or , or theatrical and event programs providing schedules and details for performances. In and organizational contexts, programs encompass management and development initiatives, as well as educational and training programs structured to build skills or achieve goals. Other specialized uses include scientific and mathematical programs for research or computation, and legal or political programs outlining policies or agendas.

Computing and Information Technology

Computer Program

A computer program is a sequence of instructions suitable for execution by a computer to perform a specific task or computation. These instructions direct the computer's hardware to process data, manipulate information, or control operations, forming the foundational element of software that enables automated computation. The concept originated in the 19th century with Charles Babbage's design of the Analytical Engine, a mechanical general-purpose computer proposed in 1837, where Babbage sketched the first program on August 4, 1837, to solve a system of linear equations using punched cards for input and operations like multiplication and division. In 1843, Ada Lovelace expanded on this by developing the first published algorithm for the Analytical Engine, a method to compute Bernoulli numbers that demonstrated the machine's potential for symbolic manipulation beyond mere numerical calculation. The theoretical foundations were formalized in the 1930s by Alan Turing, whose 1936 paper introduced the Turing machine as a model of computation, defining computable numbers and establishing the principles of algorithmic processes that underpin modern programming. The key components of a computer program include , the or process, files, and environments. consists of human-readable instructions written in a programming language, such as variables, loops, and conditionals, that outline the program's logic. During , a translates this into machine-readable or an file, checking for syntax errors and optimizing for the target ; alternatively, interpreters execute the directly line-by-line without producing an intermediate . The resulting contains instructions that the computer's can run directly. environments provide the necessary resources, such as memory allocation and libraries, to support execution, ensuring the program interacts correctly with the operating system and . Computer programs are categorized into types such as standalone applications, scripts, and system programs. Standalone applications are self-contained programs that perform specific user tasks, like word processors or games, without relying on external runtime dependencies beyond the operating system. Scripts are lightweight, interpreted programs, often used for tasks such as manipulation or interactions, executed sequentially without . System programs, including operating system kernels, manage resources, provide services to other software, and ensure stable computer operation. A simple example is the ", which demonstrates basic input, processing, and output. In , it appears as: 
BEGIN
    OUTPUT "Hello, World!"
END
This program processes no input but executes a single instruction to display the string "Hello, World!" on the screen, illustrating the core flow of program execution from initiation to output generation.

Software Programming

Software programming is the process of , , testing, and maintaining computer programs to solve specific problems or perform tasks. This involves translating human-readable requirements into machine-executable instructions using programming languages, ensuring the resulting software is reliable, efficient, and scalable. According to the IEEE, software encompasses systematic , , and of software products, where programming forms the core activity of . Programming paradigms provide fundamental styles or approaches to structuring code and solving problems. Imperative programming, including procedural variants, focuses on explicitly describing how to perform computations through sequences of statements that change program state, as exemplified in early languages like C. Declarative programming, such as functional paradigms, emphasizes what the program should accomplish by describing the desired outcome rather than the step-by-step control flow, avoiding mutable state and side effects for better composability; Haskell is a representative functional language. Object-oriented programming organizes code around objects that encapsulate data and behavior, incorporating principles like encapsulation—which bundles data and methods while restricting access to protect internal state—and inheritance, which allows classes to inherit properties and behaviors from parent classes to promote reuse and hierarchy; Smalltalk pioneered these concepts in the 1970s. These paradigms often blend in modern languages to leverage their strengths, as discussed in foundational analyses of multiparadigm design. The evolution of common programming languages reflects advancements in abstraction, portability, and usability. , developed by in 1957 as the first high-level language, targeted scientific computing with syntax close to mathematical notation, such as C = A + B for simple arithmetic. , released in 1991 by , prioritizes readability and versatility with indented blocks and dynamic typing, exemplified by c = a + b without type declarations, making it popular for scripting, , and . , introduced by in 1995 and now stewarded by , emphasizes platform independence via the and strong typing, with syntax like int c = a + b; that enforces explicit declarations for robustness in enterprise applications. These languages illustrate a shift from low-level, hardware-oriented code to high-level, developer-friendly constructs. The software development lifecycle (SDLC) outlines the stages of creating programs, typically including to gather and document user needs, design to model the system's architecture using tools like flowcharts or (UML) diagrams, implementation where coders write the source code, debugging to identify and fix errors, testing to verify functionality and performance, and deployment followed by maintenance to update and optimize the software. This structured approach, standardized by IEEE 1074, ensures quality and manageability across projects. Key tools support efficient programming workflows. Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) like provide comprehensive environments for editing, compiling, debugging, and deploying code in one interface, streamlining development for languages such as C# and .NET. Version control systems, notably developed in 2005 by for management, enable tracking changes, collaboration, and branching in repositories to prevent conflicts and preserve history. Testing frameworks, such as for or pytest for , automate unit and integration tests to ensure code reliability by asserting expected behaviors against actual outputs. These tools collectively enhance productivity and code quality in professional settings.

Media and Entertainment

Broadcast Programs

A broadcast program is a scheduled segment of audio or visual content distributed via radio or television to a mass audience, including formats such as news bulletins, entertainment series, and educational shows. This practice involves organizing content into time slots to maximize reach and engagement, distinguishing it from on-demand or private transmissions. The historical development of broadcast programs began with radio in the early 1920s, when the (later Corporation) initiated daily transmissions from its studio in on November 14, 1922, marking the start of structured public . These early efforts focused on news, music, and talks, expanding rapidly as stations like the coordinated national schedules. Television programs emerged experimentally in the 1930s, with the launching the world's first regular high-definition service on November 2, 1936, featuring variety shows and dramas, though wartime disruptions halted broadcasts until the late 1940s. Post-World War II, television proliferated in the United States and Europe, with networks like introducing commercial programming in 1939 and scaling up in the 1940s to include serialized content and live events. Broadcast programs vary by format and structure, including live transmissions for events like sports or news, and pre-recorded episodes for consistency in production. Episodic series, such as sitcoms, deliver self-contained stories in each installment, while serialized dramas build continuous narratives across seasons. Other common types encompass talk shows, which facilitate host-led discussions and guest interviews, and documentaries, which present in-depth explorations of real-world topics through investigative footage and narration. Key production elements include scripting to outline dialogue and plot, directing to oversee filming or live execution, and scheduling to allocate slots within daily or weekly grids, often reserving prime time—evening hours—for high-viewership content. Audience measurement systems, such as Nielsen's panel-based tracking across millions of households and devices, quantify viewership shares to guide these decisions and advertiser investments. In the , broadcast programs underwent a significant shift toward streaming platforms, exemplified by Netflix's evolution from a service launched in 1997 to its streaming debut in 2007, enabling subscribers to watch entire seasons at their convenience. This transition disrupted traditional linear scheduling by fostering and personalized recommendations, with streaming surpassing broadcast and cable viewership in the United States by 2025.

Theatrical and Event Programs

Theatrical and event programs are printed booklets, pamphlets, or digital documents distributed to audiences at live performances and gatherings, providing a detailed outline of the event's sequence, participants, and contextual information. These guides typically include the order of acts or segments, biographical notes on performers and creators, and supplementary details such as venue or production insights, enhancing the attendee's experience by bridging the gap between anticipation and immersion. The origins of theatrical programs trace back to the late in , where rudimentary playbills—single-sheet announcements posted outside venues—emerged during Shakespeare's era and evolved from handwritten to printed formats in the 17th and 18th centuries to inform theatergoers about casts and plot summaries amid growing rates and commercial theater booms. In , for instance, the Drury Lane Theatre issued playbills in the 1760s, typically as single-sheet announcements. By the mid-19th century, these had evolved into multi-page formats in opera houses and concert halls across and the , with ornate designs reflecting the era's advancements. The saw further evolution, particularly post-World War II, when color and enriched layouts; today, digital apps like those from the Royal Opera House offer interactive versions with QR codes linking to videos and donor lists, adapting to ubiquity while preserving the tactile appeal of print. Key components of these programs vary by event but commonly feature and lists with headshots and credits, scene-by-scene breakdowns or set lists, director's notes or statements offering creative intent, brief synopses to avoid spoilers, and advertisements from sponsors or local businesses that often subsidize costs. For example, a play program might dedicate pages to historical context or designer interviews, while programs include biographies and notes. These elements are curated to educate and entertain, with layouts emphasizing through fonts, images, and whitespace. Programs exist in diverse types tailored to specific events, such as those for stage plays that detail act structures and character arcs, opera librettos with translated arias and surtitles previews, concerts featuring movement timings and instrument rosters, and agendas outlining speaker lineups and session abstracts. In non-performing contexts, programs for galas or festivals serve similar functions, listing timelines and exhibitor maps to guide . Collectible editions, like limited-run programs from historic productions such as the 1953 at , highlight their adaptability across formal and informal gatherings. Culturally, theatrical and event programs foster audience engagement by personalizing the live experience, encouraging repeat attendance through memorable keepsakes that spark discussions or reflections post-event. Their archival value is profound, as preserved collections in institutions like the document social histories, fashion trends, and artistic evolutions, with enthusiasts forming societies to trade rare 19th-century examples that reveal shifts in public tastes. In some cases, programs from live theater events have been adapted into broadcast formats for wider reach, maintaining core informational elements in televised specials. This dual role as ephemeral guide and enduring artifact underscores their significance in preserving cultural narratives.

Business and Organizational Contexts

Management and Development Programs

In business and organizational contexts, a program refers to a coordinated group of related and activities designed to deliver benefits and outcomes that align with long-term strategic objectives, distinguishing it from the narrower scope of individual which focus on specific deliverables. This approach enables organizations to manage interdependencies across initiatives, optimize resource use, and achieve synergies not possible through isolated efforts. The concept of program management emerged in the mid-20th century amid the evolution of modern management theories. By the 1960s and 1970s, large-scale endeavors such as NASA's Apollo program and defense initiatives further propelled the formalization of program oversight to handle complex, multi-project environments. Key elements of program management include established frameworks like those outlined in the Project Management Institute's (PMI) Standard for Program Management, which stress benefits realization—ensuring tangible value from program outcomes—stakeholder alignment to secure buy-in and communication, and comprehensive risk assessment to mitigate uncertainties across interconnected efforts. These components facilitate strategic governance, change control, and performance monitoring, allowing organizations to adapt programs dynamically to business needs. Representative examples of and programs include corporate initiatives and product programs that integrate multiple projects to achieve strategic goals, as well as diversity programs aimed at fostering equitable . in these programs is measured through key performance indicators (KPIs) such as (ROI) to evaluate financial returns against costs, adherence to timelines via schedule variance metrics, and efficiency by tracking utilization rates and budget adherence. These metrics provide quantifiable insights into program impact, helping leaders prioritize high-value initiatives and adjust strategies for sustained organizational .

Educational and Training Programs

Educational and training programs consist of structured sequences of courses, modules, or activities aimed at imparting specific knowledge or skills to participants, frequently culminating in certifications, diplomas, or degrees that validate acquired competencies. These initiatives span formal academic settings and practical skill-building environments, distinguishing —focused on foundational learning and —from , which emphasizes targeted skill development for immediate application. The historical roots of such programs trace back to ancient academies, such as Plato's Academy established around 387 BCE in , recognized as the Western world's first institution of higher learning, where scholars engaged in dialectical discussions on , , and politics without formal tuition or rigid curricula. Over centuries, these evolved into medieval universities and, in the modern era, standardized degree structures; a pivotal development was the 1999 , initiated by the Bologna Declaration signed by 29 European ministers, which harmonized higher education across Europe through a three-cycle system (bachelor's, master's, doctorate) to promote student mobility, credit transfer, and quality assurance in the . Key types include degree programs, such as bachelor's and master's levels, which offer broad academic exploration leading to professional qualifications. Vocational training encompasses apprenticeships, an ancient model formalized today as paid on-the-job learning combined with related instruction to prepare individuals for trades like or , often lasting 1–6 years under . Online formats, exemplified by massive open online courses (MOOCs) pioneered by in 2012 through partnerships with elite U.S. universities like Stanford and Princeton, provide scalable, accessible alternatives with enrollments reaching millions, blending video lectures, quizzes, and peer interactions. Core components of these programs involve explicit learning objectives that outline expected outcomes, diverse assessments including exams, projects, and portfolios to measure mastery, and to verify standards. In the United States, regional accrediting bodies—such as the seven commissions including the New England Commission of Higher Education and the —conduct peer reviews to ensure institutional integrity, enabling access to federal aid and credit recognition. Persistent challenges include ensuring accessibility and equity, with the post-2020 shift to remote learning widening the : nearly 16 million U.S. students lacked adequate home , disproportionately affecting low-income and rural populations and hindering participation in programs. Additionally, measuring outcomes like reveals successes but gaps; in 2023, rates for 25- to 34-year-olds reached 80 percent overall, rising to 88 percent for those with bachelor's degrees or higher, underscoring education's role in career advancement while highlighting needs for better alignment with labor market demands. Post-pandemic efforts have included expanded federal initiatives like the E-Rate program to improve access, though gaps persist as of 2025.

Other Specialized Uses

Scientific and Mathematical Programs

In scientific and mathematical contexts, a program denotes a planned sequence of steps or procedures for conducting experiments, research, or theoretical work to achieve systematic and repeatable outcomes. This approach emphasizes precision in investigating natural phenomena or abstract structures, as in research agendas that integrate methodologies for empirical and theoretical analysis. Historical developments include 17th-century ideas by for a mechanical calculating machine to automate , providing early foundations for . In the 1940s, the , developed by and at , used probabilistic techniques to model neutron diffusion in nuclear reactions. Scientific programs often appear as structured protocols or large-scale initiatives. For example, clinical trials are phased: phase I tests safety and dosage in 20-80 participants; phase II evaluates efficacy in 100-300 patients; phase III compares to standards in thousands of participants; phase IV monitors long-term effects post-approval. The (1961-1972) coordinated spaceflight research across 17 missions, advancing lunar exploration and related technologies. In mathematics, programs refer to formal methods like , which uses the simplex method developed by in 1947 to optimize linear objectives under constraints, impacting . These emphasize methodological rigor for efficiency and validity. Reproducibility requires detailed documentation of methods and data for verification, as recommended by the National Academies. For human subjects, Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) approve programs to ensure ethical standards, , and risk minimization per U.S. federal regulations.

Legal and Political Programs

In legal and political contexts, a program refers to a systematic of actions or policies enacted by governments or organizations to address , economic, or legal issues, often involving coordinated resources, timelines, and objectives to achieve specific goals. These programs typically emerge from legislative processes and are designed to mitigate societal challenges, such as , , or financial instability, through structured interventions. Historically, notable examples include the programs initiated by the U.S. government in 1933 under President , which encompassed relief, recovery, and reform efforts like the and the to combat the . Post-World War II, welfare state expansions in and introduced comprehensive social security systems, including and , to promote economic stability and social equity in the . The of 2015 represents a global climate program, where 196 parties committed to limiting through emissions reductions and adaptation; as of 2025, implementation continues with updated nationally determined contributions following COP29. Programs are categorized into social, economic, and legal types. Social programs, such as the U.S. initiative established in 1965, provide healthcare access to the elderly and disabled, funded through payroll taxes and premiums to reduce financial barriers to medical care. Economic programs often involve stimulus packages, like the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which allocated $787 billion (as enacted; later estimated at $831 billion) for infrastructure, tax relief, and job creation to counter the . Legal programs include compliance frameworks under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, mandating internal controls and audits for public companies to prevent corporate fraud and enhance financial transparency. Implementation of these programs generally requires to authorize actions, followed by allocation from national budgets or international aid, and ongoing oversight by specialized agencies. For instance, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) oversees environmental programs through regulatory enforcement, grant management, and performance monitoring to ensure compliance with federal standards. occurs via impact assessments, which use methods like randomized controlled trials or statistical comparisons to measure outcomes against counterfactual scenarios, informing adjustments for effectiveness. Globally, program variations arise from federal versus unitary systems: in federal structures like the or , authority is shared between national and subnational governments, allowing tailored regional adaptations but complicating coordination; unitary systems, such as in or , centralize decision-making for uniform implementation across territories. Pandemic recovery programs exemplify this, with the providing $204 billion in financing to public and private sector clients in low- and middle-income countries for health, , and economic reactivation (as of 2023), while the IMF mobilized up to $1 trillion in lending capacity, disbursing approximately $250 billion to support global economic stabilization (as of 2022). These efforts often overlap with educational programs in training to build administrative capacity.