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Interlining

Interlining, also known as interline ticketing or interline agreements, is a voluntary commercial arrangement between airlines that enables the coordination of passenger travel across multiple carriers on a single itinerary. Under such agreements, participating airlines issue combined tickets, transfer baggage, and handle check-in and boarding for connecting flights operated by partner carriers. This practice allows passengers to book seamless journeys without separate tickets for each leg, distinguishing it from self-connections where travelers manage transfers independently. Interlining plays a vital role in the industry by expanding route networks and improving connectivity, particularly for international travel where no single dominates all destinations. It benefits passengers through greater flexibility, reduced hassle, and access to more options, while enabling airlines to share revenue and fill seats on underutilized routes. Originating in the mid-20th century and standardized by the (IATA) since the late 1940s, interlining has evolved with digital systems to support both traditional and virtual forms, though it faces challenges like bilateral negotiations and data sharing.

Overview

Definition and Scope

Interlining refers to a voluntary commercial agreement between two or more airlines that permits passengers to book and complete travel itineraries spanning multiple carriers on a single ticket, facilitating seamless connections without the need for separate bookings. This arrangement streamlines the passenger experience by allowing airlines to issue through-tickets for journeys that involve transfers between different operators, often including coordinated baggage handling and check-in processes. The scope of interlining encompasses both domestic and international flights, enabling airlines to extend their networks beyond their own routes to provide broader travel options worldwide. Unlike codesharing, which involves airlines marketing and selling seats on the same physical flight under a shared , interlining maintains distinct flight numbers for each segment and emphasizes operational handoffs, such as and transfers at connecting airports. This distinction ensures that while codesharing focuses on joint marketing, interlining prioritizes practical cooperation in itinerary execution. A key component of interlining agreements is the provision of passenger protections during disruptions, where the originating or operating airline may rebook affected travelers on partner carriers' flights to minimize delays or cancellations. These protections are outlined in industry standards like those from the International Air Transport Association (IATA), ensuring continuity of service across the network. Interlining was formalized in the mid-20th century through IATA Traffic Conferences that established fare patterns and multilateral agreements for coordinating passenger transfers, laying the groundwork for modern global connectivity.

Importance in Aviation

Interlining plays a crucial role in expanding networks by allowing smaller and regional carriers to partner with larger ones, thereby offering access to global routes without the need for extensive independent investments. This enables airlines to serve more origin-destination markets, enhancing overall flight options and for passengers worldwide. For instance, through multilateral agreements like the IATA Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreement (), over 300 airlines can combine their schedules and services, permitting small operators to reach destinations beyond their individual networks. Passengers benefit significantly from interlining through seamless travel experiences, including single-ticket itineraries that allow through-checked and coordinated across multiple carriers. Under frameworks such as IATA's , airlines share liability for delays, cancellations, and disruptions, providing standardized protections and rebooking options that simplify management of multi-leg journeys. This results in greater flexibility for travelers, who can select optimal schedules and routings while enjoying lower costs and reduced hassle compared to separate bookings. Economically, interlining facilitates revenue sharing among participating airlines via proration agreements, which allocate fares based on factors like mileage flown or segment contributions, ensuring fair compensation for each carrier's role in the journey. These agreements, governed by IATA's Multilateral Prorate Agreement for passengers and cargo, support efficient settlement processes and promote cooperative revenue generation without requiring airlines to operate every leg themselves. In terms of scale, interlining underpins a substantial share of global ; as of 2019, approximately 10% of itineraries involved multiple airlines through these arrangements, generating over $52 billion in annual interline revenue for IATA members. This mechanism is particularly vital for international connecting traffic, where it enhances network efficiency and supports recovery efforts by enabling quicker partnerships and broader market access.

History

Origins and Early Adoption

Formal interlining emerged in the post-World War II era as commercial aviation expanded globally, with early cooperation among airlines predating but not defining the structured agreements that followed. A pivotal milestone came with the formation of the (IATA) on April 19, 1945, in , , which united 57 airlines from 31 nations to standardize global air transport practices in the post-World War II period. IATA's creation addressed the fragmented nature of international aviation by developing uniform procedures for fares, safety, and operations, including the foundational elements of interline coordination to support seamless passenger journeys across borders. In 1947, IATA formalized these efforts through the Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreement (MITA), establishing guidelines for ticketing, handling, and among member airlines. The adoption of interlining accelerated amid the post-war aviation boom, as surplus military aircraft and surging passenger demand—driven by economic recovery and increased global mobility—necessitated expanded route networks that individual airlines could not achieve alone. Early bilateral agreements, such as the 1946 Bermuda Agreement between the and , further propelled international uptake by granting operating rights that facilitated interline cooperation, including between Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) and (BOAC) for through-ticketing on transatlantic flights. These drivers were compounded by emerging pressures for regulatory flexibility in air services, encouraging airlines to interline for competitive efficiency. Despite these advancements, early interlining faced significant challenges, particularly the absence of standardized ticketing systems, which relied on manual processes for issuing multi-carrier documents, prorating fares, and transferring . Airlines often handled these tasks through paper-based teletype communications and ad-hoc settlements, leading to delays, errors, and disputes over revenue distribution that hindered efficient operations. IATA's subsequent , established in , began mitigating these issues by centralizing interline billing and settlements.

Evolution in the Jet Age

The commercialization of , beginning with Pan Am's introduction of the 707 in 1958, profoundly transformed interlining by enabling faster long-haul flights that halved transatlantic travel times and made complex multi-carrier itineraries more practical and attractive to passengers. This shift expanded the role of major hubs like New York Idlewild Airport (now ), which served as a critical gateway for international connections, allowing seamless transfers between transoceanic jets and domestic flights operated by partner airlines. As airlines invested in jet fleets, interlining agreements proliferated to support the growing demand for end-to-end journeys, turning isolated routes into integrated global networks. The U.S. further accelerated interlining's evolution by dismantling federal oversight of fares and routes, fostering a competitive environment where carriers pursued bilateral agreements to access new markets without relying solely on regulated alliances. This led to a surge in interline pacts, with the number of and freight agreements rising substantially between and as airlines, including emerging commuters, collaborated to provide through-service and baggage handling across disparate networks. thus shifted interlining from a tool of to a strategic mechanism for revenue enhancement and convenience in a liberalized market. Technological advancements in the 1980s and 1990s solidified interlining's operational efficiency. The expansion of computerized reservation systems (CRS), exemplified by ' —which began offering access to travel agents in 1976 and became dominant by the mid-1980s—enabled booking of interline itineraries, integrating schedules, fares, and from multiple carriers into a single platform. By the 1990s, the (IATA) established electronic ticketing standards, with the first e-tickets issued by airlines such as and Southwest in 1994; by 1998, these standards supported interline e-ticketing worldwide, eliminating paper documents and streamlining among partners. Following 2000, interlining gained momentum in the region amid explosive aviation growth, as low-cost carriers like (launched in 2001) and (expanded from 2000) integrated into established networks through bilateral deals, bridging secondary routes with major hubs and boosting regional connectivity. This incorporation of LCCs into traditional interlining frameworks addressed the fragmented , enabling more affordable multi-carrier options while leveraging the carriers' rapid fleet expansions to over 20% of the region's capacity by the late . In the 2020s, interlining continued to evolve with the rise of virtual interlining and new partnerships amid post-pandemic recovery. Low-cost carriers increasingly adopted virtual interlining for seamless connections without traditional agreements, while initiatives like IATA's Multilateral Interline Framework using Offers & Orders standards enhanced transparency and real-time data sharing. Notable partnerships included ' interline agreements with international carriers such as in 2025 and in 2024, expanding connectivity to and beyond. As of 2025, virtual interlining hubs like and have become key for affordable global travel.

Operational Mechanisms

Ticketing and Reservation Systems

Interlining reservation processes leverage Global Distribution Systems (GDS) to enable seamless bookings across multiple airlines. Platforms such as , , and (including Galileo) act as intermediaries, connecting disparate to display real-time inventory, availability, and pricing for multi-carrier itineraries. This integration allows travel agents or online booking engines to construct complex journeys where passengers transfer between partner airlines without separate reservations for each segment, using standardized messaging protocols like Type B or to exchange data between carriers. Ticketing under interline agreements emphasizes unified documentation for the entire trip. The issuing or produces a single (e-ticket) that encompasses all flight coupons, governed by IATA's Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreement () and Bilateral Interline E-ticketing Agreements (BIETA). This single ticket supports interline baggage checks at origin, streamlining . Fares are prorated based on IATA's mileage-based formulas, where the total charge is derived from the sum of individual sector fares, weighted by the proportion of total journey distance covered on each 's leg, with adjustments for geographic cost variations. In cases of disruptions during interline travel, such as delays or cancellations, the establishes passenger rights, holding the contracting carrier (typically the first or issuing airline) liable for damages across the entire itinerary. Under Article 39, the first carrier assumes responsibility for acts or omissions by subsequent interline partners, entitling passengers to compensation for delay-related losses () up to approximately 6,303 (SDR) as of December 2024, and facilitating re-accommodation on alternative flights, including those operated by partner airlines. For example, a passenger on a single interline ticket from to on , connecting to on , and then to on , can expect the originating carrier to manage rebooking if a disruption occurs mid-journey.

Baggage and Passenger Handling

In interline travel, baggage transfer is facilitated through a process known as through-checking, where passengers' checked is tagged at the origin and transported directly to the final destination without requiring reclamation at intermediate transfer points. This system relies on standardized barcoded baggage tags compliant with IATA 740, which ensures optical scannability for tracking across multiple carriers' networks. Additionally, IATA 753 mandates scanning of interline baggage at key checkpoints—such as check-in, loading onto the originating flight, transfer, and arrival—to enhance visibility and reduce mishandling risks. These standards, binding on IATA member airlines under 780, enable seamless handoffs between partner carriers. For passengers, interline procedures typically involve the issuance of boarding passes for all flight segments at the originating , provided interline agreements are in place, allowing travelers to proceed directly to without re-checking at connections. Coordination of status, including check-in confirmations and real-time updates, occurs through standardized messaging protocols like IATA Type B teletype messages or modern integrations, which facilitate data exchange between airlines' systems. This ensures that downstream carriers receive timely on manifests and , minimizing disruptions during transfers. In cases of irregular operations (IROPs), such as flight delays or cancellations, interline agreements outline protocols for rerouting passengers onto partner airlines' flights to reach their . Under IATA 735d, the operating bears primary responsibility for rebooking, but interline partners share duties for care, including provision of meals, accommodations, and communications during extended disruptions. These shared responsibilities are detailed in bilateral or multilateral agreements, promoting collaborative handling to expedite recovery. Post-9/11 security enhancements have significantly impacted interline operations, mandating the exchange of Advance Passenger Information () and (PNR) data among partner airlines to support pre-screening at transfer points. IATA standards, including PNRGOV messaging for liaison and API guidelines developed in coordination with ICAO, require carriers to transmit biographic and travel details to enable assessments by the receiving before boarding. This data-sharing framework, implemented to address heightened aviation security threats, ensures that transfer passengers undergo coordinated screening without redundant checks, while complying with international requirements.

Types of Interlining

Traditional Physical Interlining

Traditional physical interlining involves coordinating the seamless transfer of passengers and their at hub airports during multi-carrier journeys, enabling through-check-in and handling without the need for passengers to reclaim and recheck luggage at intermediate stops. This process relies on operational handoffs, where the arriving transfers passengers and bags to the departing airline's ground services, ensuring continuity in travel itineraries across separate flights. To facilitate these physical connections, airlines must establish bilateral agreements that outline coordination for ground handling, ticketing, and liability in case of disruptions, such as rebooking if a connection is missed. Adherence to the International Air Transport Association's (IATA) Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreements () is essential, providing a standardized framework of rules for and interlining, including money collection, document issuance, and daily-updated lists of participating carriers to support efficient transfers. These agreements ensure compatible ground handling services at shared hubs, allowing airlines to expand connectivity without fully merging operations. A representative example is the interlining between legacy carriers and at Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport (CDG), a major hub for transatlantic-to-Europe routes, where passengers on separate tickets can benefit from baggage transfers and coordinated connections under their interline partnership. Unlike codeshare arrangements, traditional physical interlining uses distinct flight numbers for each segment, preserving each airline's operational independence and avoiding revenue dilution through shared marketing codes. In interlining, airlines do not sell seats under a partner's code, focusing instead on basic coordination for physical handoffs rather than integrated branding or revenue proration.

Virtual Interlining

Virtual interlining represents a technology-enabled approach to combining flights from multiple airlines into a single itinerary without requiring formal interline agreements between the carriers. Unlike traditional interlining, it relies on third-party platforms or online travel agencies (OTAs) to aggregate and book separate tickets for each segment, presenting them seamlessly to passengers during search and purchase. These platforms, such as , use algorithms to identify viable connections based on minimum connecting times and real-time availability, often without provisions for automatic baggage transfer or through-check-in. The concept emerged in the early , driven by startups seeking to expand options beyond legacy alliances. Kiwi.com pioneered the model in 2012, developing a proprietary that connected flights from over 750 carriers, including low-cost , to create affordable multi-segment routes previously unavailable through direct bookings. This innovation gained momentum as digital tools democratized access to fragmented inventories, allowing passengers to book complex itineraries that mimic single-ticket experiences. For instance, began integrating virtual interline options in its search results around 2020, enhancing visibility for self-connecting fares and supporting more creative routing combinations. A primary advantage of virtual interlining over traditional methods is its ability to provide low-cost carriers (LCCs) with broader network access without the need for shared or bilateral contracts, enabling rapid partnerships and market expansion. This flexibility allows LCCs to sell connecting itineraries through intermediaries, increasing load factors on underutilized routes while offering passengers lower fares—often 20-30% cheaper than equivalent single-carrier options—by combining one-way tickets dynamically. Additionally, it facilitates with non-aviation modes like , further diversifying choices without operational entanglements; as of 2025, advancements include AI-driven routing for optimized and projected growth to represent 10-15% of bookings. However, virtual interlining presents notable limitations, including the absence of coordinated handling, which requires travelers to manage separate check-ins and collect/re-check at connection points, potentially adding time and stress. Liability gaps are particularly evident during disruptions, as each operates independently under separate tickets, leaving passengers without automatic re-accommodation or compensation if a segment delay causes a .

Agreements and Participants

International Frameworks

The (IATA) plays a central role in administering multilateral and bilateral interline agreements among its member airlines. The Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreements (MITA) provide a standardized legal framework that outlines responsibilities, liabilities, and procedures for and interlining, enabling seamless cooperation between carriers. IATA also facilitates bilateral interline traffic agreements (BIETA), which allow for customized arrangements between two airlines outside the multilateral structure. As of 2025, IATA represents approximately 350 member airlines, comprising over 80% of global air traffic, many of which participate in these interline frameworks to enhance network connectivity. Key legal frameworks underpin interline protections on an international scale. The of 1999, which updated the 1929 , mandates liability rules for successive carriers in interline journeys, treating multi-carrier travel as a single undivided carriage under Article 36 to ensure consistent and protections across segments. This includes for death or injury up to 151,880 (approximately $202,000) and compensation for loss or damage. In the , Regulation (EC) No 261/2004 establishes rights for delays, cancellations, and denied boarding, with the operating carrier held primarily responsible in interline scenarios, regardless of the ticketing airline. IATA's standardization efforts further support interline operations through tools like the system, which delivers real-time data on , , health, and requirements tailored to multi-carrier itineraries. This ensures compliance across borders and segments, reducing disruptions in interline . In recent developments, IATA has advocated for modernizing outdated communication systems, including a 2023 initiative to transition from legacy Type B messaging—used for interline and operational exchanges—to digital XML-based standards, aiming to improve efficiency and reduce mishandling rates.

Key Airlines and Partnerships

Interlining is predominantly facilitated through major global airline alliances, which enable seamless connections among member carriers. , the largest alliance with 25 member airlines as of 2025, includes key participants like and , whose interlining partnership originated from a 1993 marketing agreement that expanded under the alliance's formation in 1997 to cover codesharing, baggage handling, and ticketing across their networks. Similarly, , comprising 14 full members and several affiliates, features foundational interlining between and since the alliance's launch in 1999, allowing passengers to book through itineraries with unified e-ticketing and baggage transfer on routes spanning , , and beyond. SkyTeam, with 19 members, supports interlining exemplified by and , whose partnership deepened in 2004 with the extension of e-ticket interlining, integrating transatlantic and European routes under the alliance framework established in 2000. Beyond alliances, independent full-service and low-cost carriers participate in limited interlining to access international markets. , traditionally focused on domestic point-to-point service, initiated limited interlining post-2020, primarily with international partners such as , , and , enabling baggage check-through and connections at U.S. gateways like and without full alliance integration. In contrast, engages exclusively in virtual interlining through third-party platforms like , where passengers book separate tickets for connecting flights without traditional baggage or ticketing agreements, leveraging technology for low-cost European routes since partnerships expanded in 2024. Notable bilateral and regional pacts bridge alliance gaps, enhancing global connectivity. U.S. majors like maintain interline agreements with non-allied Middle East carriers such as , allowing seamless transfers to over 200 U.S. destinations despite competitive tensions, with connections via hubs like and operational since the early 2020s. In Asia, (ANA) and (JAL), members of rival alliances and respectively, established a bilateral interline e-ticketing agreement in 2007, facilitating domestic and international connections within and to regional destinations without full alliance reciprocity. As of 2025, interlining remains a core practice for most full-service carriers, with alliances accounting for the majority of agreements and enabling over 1,300 destinations across alone, though low-cost carriers' participation stays selective to preserve operational simplicity.

Benefits and Challenges

Advantages for Passengers and Airlines

Interlining provides passengers with significantly expanded travel options by enabling seamless connections across multiple airlines' networks, allowing access to destinations that might otherwise require self-transfers or multiple bookings. This fosters greater and flexibility, particularly for routes involving smaller or regional carriers that lack extensive direct services. For instance, passengers can book itineraries spanning global hubs without the hassle of re-checking baggage or obtaining separate tickets, as interline agreements facilitate through-check-in and baggage transfer at connection points. Additionally, these arrangements contribute to competitive pricing through network effects, where airlines pool demand to optimize capacity and reduce fares on connecting routes that benefit from higher overall utilization. Passengers in underserved markets gain from this enhanced competition, as interlining bridges gaps in direct flight availability, often resulting in more affordable options compared to standalone tickets from single carriers. The simplified travel process—encompassing single-ticket purchases and coordinated baggage handling—further enhances convenience, reducing stress and time at airports during multi-leg journeys. For , interlining boosts load factors by channeling feeder traffic from partner carriers into mainline routes, filling seats that might otherwise remain empty and improving overall utilization. This influx of connecting passengers generates additional without the need for airlines to develop or operate every segment of a route themselves, allowing cost-effective expansion of their effective network reach. Smaller or low-cost carriers, in particular, benefit from access to larger partners' hubs, which increases their passenger volumes and ancillary income opportunities. On an industry-wide scale, interlining promotes competition and enhances connectivity in underserved regions by integrating disparate networks, supporting broader economic activity through improved air links. According to IATA analyses, such partnerships have enabled substantial interregional , with interregional flows increasing 45% over the past decade to account for 16.5% of total global in , driven by collaborative routing efficiencies. This interconnectedness helps sustain vital routes in less dense markets, fostering and accessibility. A notable example of interlining's value occurred during the post-COVID recovery, where expanded agreements facilitated the rerouting of stranded passengers amid widespread disruptions, ensuring continuity of travel and aiding the industry's rebound. IATA guidance highlighted how new interline relationships provided essential and , enabling airlines to accommodate involuntary reroutes under resolutions like 735d, which minimized passenger disruptions and supported a faster return to pre-pandemic service levels. This collaborative approach was instrumental in restoring global network resilience as demand surged in 2023 and 2024.

Limitations and Criticisms

Interlining practices, while facilitating broader connectivity, introduce significant operational risks, particularly in the coordination of flight handoffs. Delays during transfers often result in missed connections, exacerbated by tight minimum connection times (MCTs) at hubs, where incoming flight disruptions can cascade into onward travel failures without standardized protections across carriers. Furthermore, liability distribution is uneven, with the originating airline typically bearing the majority of re-accommodation costs, including hotel stays and meal vouchers, as per IATA guidelines on irregular operations (IROPs), leaving subsequent carriers with minimal financial responsibility. This imbalance strains resources and discourages deeper interline commitments among smaller operators. Economically, interlining is plagued by revenue disputes arising from complex proration calculations, where airlines negotiate fare splits for shared itineraries, often leading to billing conflicts and delayed settlements estimated to affect over USD 50 billion in annual interline (as of 2018), with total airline revenues now exceeding $1 trillion in 2025 projections. Antitrust concerns have also emerged in alliance-dominated interlining, as seen in the European Commission's 2009-2010 probes into agreements between members like , , , and , which scrutinized potential on transatlantic routes that could reduce competition and inflate fares. These investigations highlighted how interline pacts within alliances might consolidate , prompting regulatory scrutiny to ensure fair pricing. Passengers face heightened risks in interline arrangements, notably with baggage mishandling rates that are substantially higher than domestic or single-carrier flights. According to SITA's 2025 Baggage IT Insights , the global mishandling rate was 6.3 bags per 1,000 passengers in 2024, while rates for international interline itineraries are typically higher, reaching 12.1 per 1,000 in 2023 (2024 interline-specific rates not detailed in the latest ). This is driven by point vulnerabilities and inconsistent tracking systems. Virtual interlining amplifies these issues, as it lacks the contractual protections of traditional agreements, leaving travelers to self-manage rebookings and claims in cases of delays or losses, without guaranteed liability coverage from participating airlines. Looking ahead, the rise of ultra-low-cost carriers (ULCCs) poses challenges to interline participation, as these models prioritize point-to-point operations to minimize costs, leading to reduced engagement in revenue-sharing networks that demand investments and coordination. Environmentally, interlining draws criticism for enabling longer routings that increase consumption and emissions compared to direct alternatives, undermining goals amid growing regulatory pressure for greener .

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