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Isocarboxazid

Isocarboxazid is a hydrazine monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) antidepressant medication used to treat severe or treatment-resistant depression in patients who have not responded to other therapies.^[1] Approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1959 and marketed under the brand name Marplan, it works by irreversibly inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which increases the levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain.^[1]^[2] Due to its potential for serious drug and food interactions—particularly with tyramine-rich foods that can cause hypertensive crises—it is typically reserved as a last-line treatment option.^[2]^[3] Introduced by Roche Laboratories as one of the earliest MAOIs, isocarboxazid has been largely supplanted by safer alternatives like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) but remains available for cases where other antidepressants fail.^[4]^[1]

Medical Uses

Indications

Isocarboxazid is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) in adults.^[5] Its efficacy has been established in outpatient adults with MDD, particularly those exhibiting atypical features—like hypersomnia, hyperphagia, leaden paralysis, or interpersonal rejection sensitivity—or non-endogenous and treatment-resistant forms unresponsive to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), or tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs).^[6]^[7] Due to its side effect profile, isocarboxazid is reserved as a last-line option for these specific depression subtypes where first- and second-line therapies have failed, leveraging its role as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) for enhanced efficacy in such cases. It is indicated for adults only, with no established efficacy or safety in pediatric populations.^[5]^[8] In addition to core depressive symptoms, isocarboxazid addresses co-occurring anxiety manifestations, including anxious mood, panic attacks, and phobic symptoms that often accompany MDD.^[5] Clinical trials have demonstrated its superiority over placebo in reducing these anxiety-related features alongside depression in anxious depressives.^[9] Off-label, isocarboxazid has been investigated for potential use in schizophrenia, particularly for negative symptoms or comorbid depression, with early clinical studies exploring its adjunctive role in chronic schizophrenic patients alongside antipsychotics like chlorpromazine.^[10] Limited evidence from such trials suggests possible benefits in anergic or depressive aspects of schizophrenia, though it remains unapproved for this indication and is not routinely recommended.^[11] Further exploration has occurred in other mood and anxiety disorders, such as dysthymia and panic disorder, supported by observational data on symptom relief.^[12]

Dosage

Isocarboxazid is typically initiated at a dose of 10 mg orally twice daily.^[5] Dosage may be increased by 10 mg increments every 2 to 4 days, if tolerated, aiming for 40 mg per day (divided into 2 to 4 doses) by the end of the first week; further increases of up to 20 mg per week can be made if necessary, but the maximum recommended daily dose is 60 mg.^[5]^[13] Once an optimal therapeutic response is achieved, the dosage should be gradually reduced to the lowest effective amount that maintains benefit, typically 10 to 20 mg per day in divided doses.^[13] The full antidepressant effect may require 3 to 6 weeks of treatment to become apparent.^[5] The medication is administered orally and can be taken with or without food, though taking it with food may help reduce gastrointestinal upset.^[14] Daily doses should be divided into 2 to 4 administrations to minimize side effects.^[5] Elderly patients may require caution and dose adjustments due to age-related kidney, liver, or heart conditions, with subsequent adjustments based on response and tolerability.^[15] Discontinuation should involve gradual tapering over 2 to 4 weeks to avoid withdrawal effects.^[13] During initiation and any dose adjustments, patients require regular monitoring of blood pressure to detect potential hypertensive crises, along with psychiatric evaluations to assess therapeutic response and side effects.^[5]

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Isocarboxazid is a non-selective, irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase (MAO) enzymes, targeting both MAO-A and MAO-B isoforms. By covalently binding to these enzymes, it prevents the oxidative deamination of monoamine neurotransmitters, thereby inhibiting their breakdown. This mechanism underlies its primary therapeutic action as an antidepressant.^[4]^[12]^[16] The inhibition of MAO by isocarboxazid leads to elevated levels of several monoamines in the brain and periphery, including serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, epinephrine, melatonin, and trace amines such as phenethylamine and tyramine. These increases occur because MAO normally catalyzes the metabolism of these compounds; blocking this process enhances their availability for neurotransmission. Specifically, the accumulation of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in synaptic clefts potentiates monoaminergic signaling, which is thought to contribute to mood stabilization and antidepressant efficacy, with therapeutic effects typically emerging after 3 to 6 weeks of treatment due to adaptive changes in receptor sensitivity and downstream signaling pathways.^[4]^[12]^[17]^[18]^[19] In addition to its antidepressant properties, isocarboxazid exhibits potential anti-panic and anxiolytic effects, likely mediated by enhanced noradrenergic transmission that modulates fear and anxiety circuits. It demonstrates no significant direct affinity for serotonin, adrenergic, or other neurotransmitter receptors, distinguishing its action from drugs that target receptors directly. Due to the irreversible nature of its binding, isocarboxazid depletes functional MAO enzymes, with pharmacological effects persisting until new enzyme synthesis occurs, typically requiring 7-14 days for recovery.^[12]^[20]^[19]

Pharmacokinetics

Isocarboxazid is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract after oral administration, achieving peak plasma concentrations within 1–2 hours.^[12] Its bioavailability is low, consistent with other hydrazine-based monoamine oxidase inhibitors.^[12] The drug is widely distributed throughout the body, including crossing the blood-brain barrier to exert its central effects.^[12] The volume of distribution has not been well characterized, though it exhibits high plasma protein binding similar to analogous agents like phenelzine and tranylcypromine.^[12] Isocarboxazid undergoes rapid hepatic metabolism primarily through acetylation, yielding largely inactive metabolites such as hippuric acid.^[12]^[4] Elimination occurs mainly via renal excretion of these metabolites, with approximately 42.5% of the administered dose recovered in urine within 24 hours (predominantly as hippuric acid) and about 22% via the intestinal tract.^[12] The plasma elimination half-life is short, ranging from 1.5 to 4 hours due to swift metabolism.^[12]^[21] However, the functional half-life extends to 7–14 days because of its irreversible inhibition of monoamine oxidase, during which time enzyme resynthesis is required for recovery.^[21] Factors such as advanced age and impaired hepatic function can decrease clearance, thereby prolonging the half-life and elevating plasma concentrations.^[22]

Side Effects

Common Side Effects

Isocarboxazid, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, is associated with several common side effects that are typically mild and dose-related, arising from its effects on neurotransmitter levels and autonomic function. These effects often diminish with continued use or dose adjustment, though monitoring is recommended.^[5] Orthostatic hypotension, caused by enhanced noradrenergic activity leading to blood pressure changes upon standing, affects approximately 4% of patients in clinical trials, manifesting as dizziness or lightheadedness; it can be managed by rising slowly and, if persistent, reducing the dose.^[5] Insomnia and nervousness, linked to elevated monoamine levels, occur in 4-6% and 1-2% of patients respectively, often addressed by timing doses earlier in the day to minimize sleep disruption.^[5]^[23] Gastrointestinal issues, attributed to anticholinergic-like properties, include dry mouth in 6-9% of patients, constipation in 4-7%, and nausea in 4-6%; these are commonly alleviated with hydration, dietary fiber, or symptomatic treatments like sugarless gum for xerostomia.^[5] Other frequent effects encompass headache (6-15%), drowsiness (up to 4%), and tremors (4%), all reported in placebo-controlled trials and generally resolving with time or dose titration.^[5] Weight gain is noted in postmarketing reports, while sexual dysfunction, such as decreased libido or impotence, affects 1-10% of users, with management involving lifestyle adjustments or dose optimization.^[5]^[23] Overall, these side effects lead to discontinuation in a minority of cases, primarily due to dizziness or dry mouth, and most improve without intervention.^[5]

Serious Side Effects

Isocarboxazid, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), can precipitate a hypertensive crisis, a potentially life-threatening condition triggered by ingestion of tyramine-rich foods (such as aged cheeses or certain wines) or sympathomimetic agents. Symptoms typically include severe occipital headache, palpitations, neck stiffness, nausea, vomiting, sweating, photophobia, and chest pain, often accompanied by blood pressure elevations exceeding 180/120 mmHg, which carries risks of intracranial bleeding, stroke, or myocardial infarction.^[5]^[1] Immediate discontinuation of the drug and initiation of antihypertensive therapy are essential if a crisis occurs.^[5] Serotonin syndrome represents another severe adverse reaction, arising from interactions with serotonergic medications like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and is characterized by hyperthermia, muscle rigidity, myoclonus, autonomic instability, agitation, delirium, and potentially seizures or coma; this syndrome is rare but can be fatal without prompt intervention.^[5]^[24] Concomitant use with SSRIs such as sertraline has been documented to induce this syndrome, necessitating a washout period of at least two weeks after discontinuing most SSRIs (or five weeks for fluoxetine) before starting isocarboxazid.^[24] Hepatotoxicity occurs infrequently with isocarboxazid, with a low incidence of elevated liver enzymes (less than 1%) that may progress to jaundice or acute liver failure mimicking viral hepatitis.^[5]^[1] Periodic liver function monitoring is advised, and the drug should be discontinued at the first signs of hepatic dysfunction.^[5] A black box warning highlights the increased risk of suicidality associated with isocarboxazid and other antidepressants, particularly in children, adolescents, and young adults (ages 18-24) during initial treatment for major depressive disorder, with short-term studies showing a 4% incidence compared to 2% with placebo.^[5] Close monitoring for worsening depression or emergent suicidal thoughts is required, especially in the first few months of therapy.^[5] In patients with bipolar disorder, isocarboxazid may induce a manic or hypomanic switch, exacerbating mood instability and potentially leading to full mania.^[25] Long-term use has been linked to rare cases of peripheral neuropathy, manifesting as neuritis that may require pyridoxine supplementation (25 mg/day) and drug discontinuation.^[26]

Contraindications and Interactions

Contraindications

Isocarboxazid is absolutely contraindicated in patients with pheochromocytoma due to the risk of hypertensive crisis from accumulated pressor amines.^[5]^[25] It is also prohibited in those with congestive heart failure, uncontrolled hypertension, or recent myocardial infarction, as these cardiovascular conditions heighten the potential for severe pressor effects and complications like stroke or intracranial hemorrhage.^[5]^[25] Additionally, a history of hepatic disease or abnormal liver function tests represents an absolute contraindication, given the drug's potential to cause hepatotoxicity.^[5]^[27] Isocarboxazid is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to the drug. It is also contraindicated in those with severe renal impairment.^[28] The drug must not be used concurrently with other monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) or initiated within 14 days of discontinuing another MAOI, owing to the risk of severe, potentially fatal interactions leading to hypertensive crisis.^[5]^[27] Cerebrovascular disease is another absolute contraindication, as isocarboxazid can increase the risk of stroke through its effects on blood pressure.^[5]^[25] For special populations, use is prohibited in children under 16 years, as safety and efficacy have not been established.^[5] There are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. Isocarboxazid should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.^[28] It is not known whether this drug is excreted in human milk. Because many drugs are excreted in human milk, caution should be exercised when isocarboxazid is administered to a nursing woman.^[28] In elderly patients with comorbidities, use requires careful risk-benefit assessment to avoid complications like orthostatic hypotension.^[5]^[22]

Drug and Food Interactions

Isocarboxazid, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), interacts with tyramine-containing foods, potentially leading to a hypertensive crisis characterized by severe headache, palpitations, neck stiffness, and potentially fatal elevations in blood pressure.^[5] Patients must adhere to a low-tyramine diet, avoiding aged cheeses (e.g., cheddar, blue cheese), cured or fermented meats (e.g., salami, sausage, pepperoni), pickled herring, soy products (e.g., soy sauce, miso), overripe bananas, broad (fava) beans, and yeast extracts (e.g., Marmite).^[29] ^[30] This restriction applies during treatment and for at least two weeks afterward, as tyramine levels in these foods can be potentiated by MAO inhibition, disrupting normal blood pressure regulation.^[5] ^[29] Concurrent use with serotonergic medications, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs like fluoxetine or sertraline), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs like venlafaxine), and triptans (e.g., sumatriptan), is contraindicated due to the risk of serotonin syndrome, which manifests as hyperthermia, rigidity, myoclonus, autonomic instability, and potentially coma or death.^[5] ^[31] A washout period of at least five weeks is required after discontinuing fluoxetine and two weeks for other SSRIs or SNRIs before initiating isocarboxazid; similarly, a two-week interval is advised post-isocarboxazid before starting these agents.^[5] Triptans and other serotonin agonists should be avoided entirely during therapy.^[31] Sympathomimetic agents, including amphetamines, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine (found in many over-the-counter decongestants), and other stimulants, are contraindicated as they can provoke a severe pressor response, exacerbating hypertension and risking cardiovascular events.^[5] ^[30] This interaction arises from isocarboxazid's inhibition of monoamine breakdown, leading to excessive norepinephrine release and amplified vasoconstriction.^[31] Isocarboxazid has over 250 documented major or contraindicated interactions with other drugs, including opioids (e.g., meperidine, which can cause fatal respiratory depression, coma, or hypotension), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs like amitriptyline), buspirone, bupropion, and certain anesthetics.^[31] Meperidine specifically carries a high risk of severe, potentially lethal reactions and should be avoided for two to three weeks after MAOI discontinuation.^[5] Additional interactions include dextromethorphan (in cough syrups) and St. John's wort, both of which heighten serotonergic effects.^[30] Alcohol consumption is contraindicated with isocarboxazid, as it may intensify central nervous system depression, resulting in enhanced dizziness, drowsiness, and impaired concentration or coordination.^[5] ^[29] Excessive caffeine intake should also be limited to prevent additive hypertensive effects.^[30] In all cases of suspected interactions, immediate medical intervention is essential, with blood pressure monitoring recommended during co-administration risks.^[5]

History

Development

Isocarboxazid was developed in the 1950s by Hoffmann-La Roche as a hydrazine derivative of the monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) class, building on the unexpected antidepressant effects observed with iproniazid, an antitubercular agent synthesized earlier by the same company. The compound emerged from efforts to create safer alternatives to iproniazid, which had shown mood-elevating properties in tuberculosis patients but carried significant risks. It was patented under U.S. Patent 2,908,688, filed on May 31, 1957, and issued on October 13, 1959.^[32]^[12] This positioned it as a non-selective, irreversible MAOI capable of inhibiting both MAO-A and MAO-B enzymes, thereby elevating levels of neurotransmitters like serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the brain.^[12] Early research focused on screening hydrazine derivatives for MAO inhibitory activity, with isocarboxazid demonstrating potent effects in biochemical assays between 1956 and 1958. Animal studies during this period revealed antidepressant-like behaviors, including reversal of reserpine-induced ptosis and sedation in rodents, which mimicked depressive states and confirmed the compound's potential to counteract monoamine depletion. These preclinical findings, conducted at Roche Laboratories in Nutley, New Jersey, established isocarboxazid's pharmacological profile as a broad-spectrum MAOI, distinct from its antitubercular predecessors by prioritizing psychiatric applications. Initial concerns arose regarding hepatotoxicity, an issue inherited from hydrazine-based compounds like iproniazid, prompting the integration of liver function monitoring protocols even in early testing phases to mitigate risks of jaundice and hepatic injury.^[32]^[33] Clinical trials in the late 1950s advanced isocarboxazid toward therapeutic use, with phase evaluations demonstrating efficacy particularly in endogenous depression characterized by melancholic features. Key double-blind studies published in 1959 and 1961, including controlled assessments in hospitalized patients, reported response rates exceeding 60%, with significant improvements in mood, energy, and psychomotor retardation compared to placebo. For instance, a trial in the Journal of Mental Science involving depressed inpatients showed marked symptom relief in the majority of participants after four weeks of treatment at doses of 30-60 mg daily.^[34] These results solidified isocarboxazid's role as an early antidepressant, leading to its market introduction under the trade name Marplan in 1959, though ongoing vigilance for adverse effects like orthostatic hypotension tempered its initial rollout.^[32]

Regulatory Approval

Isocarboxazid received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on July 1, 1959, for the treatment of depression, initially marketed under the brand name Marplan by Hoffman-La Roche.^[12] In 1998, as part of the Drug Efficacy Study Implementation (DESI) review process, the FDA evaluated existing data and literature, confirming the drug's effectiveness for this indication while emphasizing its risks, leading to approval of updated labeling.^[35] Post-approval regulatory actions included the addition of a black box warning in 2007, highlighting the increased risk of suicidal thinking and behavior in children, adolescents, and young adults treated with isocarboxazid and other antidepressants, based on clinical trial analyses showing elevated suicidality during initial treatment months.^[5] In 2004, the FDA revoked a prior temporary exemption under DESI regulations, which had permitted continued marketing pending efficacy resolution, thereby finalizing isocarboxazid's status with requirements for revised labeling on contraindications and warnings.^[36] After initial marketing by Hoffman-La Roche, production of Marplan was discontinued but later resumed following its acquisition by Validus Pharmaceuticals in 2007. As of 2025, it is marketed by Lifsa Drugs LLC.^[37]^[38] Internationally, isocarboxazid was approved in Canada and the United Kingdom during the 1960s, similar to its U.S. timeline, and remains available in these markets for depression treatment.^[39]^[40] It is not approved by the European Medicines Agency for use in the European Union. Currently, in the United States, isocarboxazid is marketed solely as the brand-name Marplan in 10 mg tablets, with no generic equivalent available, and it is rarely prescribed due to safer therapeutic options.^[41] Labeling continues to mandate strict warnings and patient education on tyramine-containing food interactions to prevent hypertensive crises.^[1]

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