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Issei

Issei (一世, "first generation") designates Japanese-born emigrants who settled in the Americas, chiefly the United States and Brazil, from the late 19th century through the early 1920s, forming the foundational cohort of overseas Japanese communities.^[1]^[2] In the United States, Issei immigration surged after 1885, with most arriving before the 1924 Immigration Act halted further entry; they concentrated in Hawaii—initially via contract labor from 1868—and the Pacific Coast states, engaging in farming, fishing, and small enterprises despite facing severe legal barriers to land ownership and naturalization.^[3]^[4]^[1] Brazil received its inaugural organized Issei contingent in 1908 via the Kasato Maru, which transported 781 workers to São Paulo's coffee plantations amid labor shortages following European influx declines, eventually establishing the world's largest Japanese diaspora outside Japan.^[5]^[2] Precluded from citizenship in the U.S. by the 1790 Naturalization Act's racial restrictions—unamended until 1952—Issei endured alien status, economic exclusion via measures like California's 1913 Alien Land Law, and, during World War II, mass incarceration alongside their U.S.-born offspring following Pearl Harbor, affecting roughly 120,000 individuals amid unsubstantiated espionage fears.^[1]^[3] Notwithstanding such adversities, Issei demonstrated notable economic resilience, pioneering agricultural innovations and community institutions that propelled intergenerational advancement, with their progeny achieving elevated socioeconomic outcomes relative to contemporaneous immigrant groups.^[6]

Definition and Terminology

Etymology and Scope

The term Issei (一世) originates from Japanese, where it literally translates to "first generation," derived from ichi ("one") and sei ("generation" or "world"). The usage emerged in the 1930s among Japanese communities in the United States to distinguish immigrants born in Japan from their American-born offspring.^[7]^[8] In its scope, Issei specifically denotes Japanese nationals born in Japan who emigrated to foreign countries, particularly in the Americas, rather than a broader ethnic category. This applies to those who arrived primarily between the 1880s and 1924, when U.S. policies like the 1907–1908 Gentlemen's Agreement and the 1924 Immigration Act curtailed further influxes.^[1]^[8] Ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law until the 1952 McCarran-Walter Act, Issei formed the foundational layer of diaspora communities, with the term extending analogously to first-generation Japanese in Canada, Brazil (where over 190,000 arrived by 1941), Peru, and other Latin American nations, though applications vary by local context.^[9]^[8] It excludes pre-Meiji era migrants or later postwar arrivals, focusing on the mass emigration cohort tied to economic opportunities in agriculture, fishing, and labor.^[1]

Emigration from Japan

Push Factors in Meiji and Taisho Eras

During the Meiji era (1868–1912), rapid industrialization and urbanization disrupted traditional rural economies, displacing many small-scale farmers who formed the bulk of early emigrants.^[10] Agricultural decline stemmed from high land taxes imposed to fund modernization, which often exceeded farmers' yields amid inflation and poor harvests, pushing rural households into debt and poverty.^[11] By the late 1800s, scholars estimate that up to 60% of Japan's population—over 25 million people—lived in poverty, with rural areas particularly affected due to limited non-agricultural opportunities and reliance on subsistence farming vulnerable to natural disasters and soil exhaustion.^[12] Increasing population pressure exacerbated land scarcity, as Japan's populace grew from approximately 35 million in 1872 to 51 million by 1912, straining resources in agrarian prefectures like Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, and Fukuoka that supplied most emigrants.^[13] Social upheaval from the abolition of the feudal system further contributed, as former samurai and displaced peasants sought alternatives abroad amid unemployment and underemployment.^[10] The post-Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) economic boom in urban sectors intensified rural-urban migration, leaving villages with labor shortages and further economic instability that acted as a "push" for overseas opportunities.^[14] These factors were compounded by frequent natural calamities, such as floods and famines, which periodically devastated harvests and prompted village-level emigration decisions influenced by multiple stressors including environmental degradation.^[13] In the Taishō era (1912–1926), ongoing urbanization and the shift toward heavy industry continued to erode rural livelihoods, with many farmers unable to compete against imported rice and mechanized agriculture.^[13] The 1918 Rice Riots, triggered by soaring prices and shortages amid wartime inflation, highlighted acute rural distress, affecting over 700,000 participants across 250 locations and underscoring the vulnerability of peasant households to food insecurity and debt. While specific Taishō emigration data shows a pivot to Latin America due to U.S. restrictions, domestic push factors persisted, including population growth to 56 million by 1920 and recurring disasters like the 1923 Great Kantō Earthquake, which destroyed infrastructure and livelihoods in affected regions.^[13] Economic selectivity in emigration favored those from impoverished rural backgrounds, as urban opportunities remained limited for the unskilled, sustaining outflows despite policy shifts.^[15]

Emigration Patterns and Destinations

Japanese emigration patterns during the Meiji (1868–1912) and Taishō (1912–1926) eras were characterized by organized labor recruitment responding to domestic economic pressures and overseas demand for agricultural workers. Initial outflows were small, with the first group of 148 Japanese contract laborers arriving in Hawaii on January 13, 1868, aboard the City of Tokyo, though high mortality and dissatisfaction led to a hiatus until systematic emigration resumed in 1885 via a treaty with Hawaii's sugar planters.^[10] From 1885 to 1924, Hawaii became the primary destination, absorbing tens of thousands annually at peak, followed by transmigration to the continental United States, where Japanese arrivals totaled over 400,000 between 1886 and 1911, concentrated on the West Coast for farm labor and fishing.^[10] The U.S. destinations dominated early patterns, but restrictive policies—the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 limiting male laborers and the 1924 Immigration Act effectively halting inflows—redirected migrants to Latin America. Peru initiated Japanese contract labor in 1899 with 790 workers for coastal plantations and guano fields, marking the start of South American settlement.^[16] Brazil emerged as the largest recipient after 1908, when the Kasato Maru delivered 781 settlers to Santos on June 18, 1908, sparking a wave that saw roughly 190,000 arrivals by the 1930s, primarily to coffee regions in São Paulo state.^[16] Overall, South American destinations received approximately 240,000 Japanese migrants from the late Meiji period through the early Shōwa era (1926–1989), with Brazil and Peru accounting for the majority.^[17] Secondary destinations included smaller numbers to Mexico (from 1897 for sugar plantations), Canada (primarily British Columbia, peaking pre-1923 restrictions), and Pacific outposts like the Philippines and Australia, though these flows were limited by distance and local bans. Emigration overwhelmingly involved young males from rural prefectures like Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, and Fukuoka, with patterns shifting post-1900 to include women via "picture bride" arrangements to form families, reflecting a transition from temporary contract work to permanent settlement. High return rates—over 50% for U.S.-bound migrants—indicated selective permanence among those establishing communities.^[10]

Settlement in the Americas

United States and Hawaii

The initial wave of Japanese immigration to Hawaii commenced in 1868 with the arrival of 153 individuals known as the Gannenmono, who departed from Yokohama and reached Honolulu as indentured laborers for sugar plantations amid labor shortages following the decline of Chinese workers.^[18] This group, primarily from rural areas, endured harsh conditions, with many returning to Japan, but their journey marked the beginning of sustained Issei settlement in the islands.^[18] Subsequent organized migrations intensified, including 28,691 arrivals between 1885 and 1894 under government contracts and over 57,000 during the private contract period from 1894 to 1900, driven by Japan's economic pressures and Hawaii's expanding plantation economy.^[18] Japanese entry into the U.S. mainland began modestly in 1869 with the establishment of the Wakamatsu Colony in California, though significant numbers arrived later as laborers for agriculture, railroads, and fisheries following the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act.^[19] By 1900, the U.S. Census enumerated 24,326 Japanese residents, over 90% male and concentrated on the West Coast in states like California and Washington, where they filled roles in farming, canneries, and urban services.^[4] Immigration peaked around 1907 with tens of thousands annually, reflecting rural origins from prefectures such as Hiroshima and Yamaguchi, before the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907-1908 halted passports for laborers while allowing family members, spurring over 20,000 picture brides between 1900 and 1924 to join male Issei and stabilize communities.^[20]^[18]^[21] Issei in Hawaii predominantly labored on sugar and pineapple plantations under multi-year contracts, forming ethnic enclaves with mutual aid societies, while mainland settlers shifted from transient work to leasing farmland in regions like California's Central Valley, cultivating crops such as strawberries and asparagus despite legal barriers to ownership.^[18]^[4] These adaptations fostered resilient networks, with Issei populations reaching approximately 111,000 by 1922 across both areas, underscoring their economic contributions amid exclusionary policies.^[19]

Latin America and Brazil

Japanese immigration to Latin America commenced with Peru in 1899, when 790 contract laborers arrived on the Sakura Maru, docking on April 3 after departing Japan on February 28; these Issei primarily worked on sugar plantations in coastal regions but faced severe hardships including malaria outbreaks that claimed 143 lives during the voyage and early settlement.^[22] By the 1930s, the Japanese Peruvian population reached approximately 29,000, with Issei establishing urban enclaves in Lima and other coastal cities, operating small businesses such as barbershops, cafes, and stores while forming associations like the Nipponjin Kyokai in 1912 and publishing newspapers including Andes Jiho from 1913.^[22] Divisions existed between mainland Japanese and Okinawan immigrants, who together numbered around 16,300 by 1941, fostering schools and cultural institutions to preserve traditions amid adaptation to Peruvian society.^[23] In Mexico, Japanese settlement began in the 1890s with efforts to establish coffee colonies in Chiapas, followed by organized arrivals from 1897 onward, reaching nearly 10,000 immigrants by 1910; these Issei focused on agriculture in southern states and border regions, though numbers remained modest compared to Peru and Brazil, with many engaging in farming and trade before facing restrictions in the 1930s.^[24] Brazil hosted the largest Issei influx, initiated on June 18, 1908, with 781 arrivals on the Kasato Maru at Santos port, recruited for coffee plantations in São Paulo state amid labor shortages post-abolition of slavery.^[25] Between 1908 and 1941, prior to wartime disruptions, 188,985 Japanese immigrants entered Brazil, concentrating in rural colonies in São Paulo and Paraná where 90% of Issei labored in agriculture until the 1940s, gradually transitioning to independent farming and later urban commerce.^[26] These settlers, intending temporary work but often remaining permanently, built self-sustaining communities with Japanese-language schools and mutual aid societies, contributing to agricultural productivity while navigating exploitative contracts and environmental challenges in tropical regions.^[25] By the late 1950s, half of Japanese Brazilians had shifted to cities, reflecting Issei economic mobility from plantation labor to entrepreneurship in industry and services.^[25] Smaller Issei groups reached countries like Argentina from 1909, primarily Ryukyuans via Brazil, but these numbered in the hundreds and focused on niche agricultural ventures.^[27]

Canada and Other Regions

The first recorded Issei arrival in Canada occurred on May 7, 1877, when Manzo Nagano, a 22-year-old sailor from Wakayama Prefecture, landed in New Westminster, British Columbia.^[28] Subsequent immigrants, primarily young men from fishing villages and rural areas in Kyūshū and Honshū, followed in small numbers through the 1880s and 1890s, totaling an estimated 1,000 by 1895; they initially worked in fishing, mining, and rail construction along the Pacific coast.^[29] Immigration accelerated after 1896, peaking in two waves around 1900–1908, with over 11,000 arrivals in the first peak alone, driven by labor demands in British Columbia's salmon canneries, sawmills, and farms.^[29] By 1914, the Japanese Canadian population, largely Issei, numbered approximately 10,000, with 95% concentrated in British Columbia; Vancouver's Powell Street emerged as the primary urban enclave, supporting businesses, boarding houses, and community associations.^[30] Smaller inland settlements developed in lumber camps, mining towns, and prairie provinces like Alberta, where Issei pioneered berry farming and market gardening despite harsh conditions.^[31] Family reunification increased after 1907, though restrictive policies like the 1908 "continuous journey" regulation curtailed further male labor migration, shifting focus to nisei births and limited yobiyose (dependent) entries until a 1928 quota limited annual immigration to 150.^[32] In Mexico, Issei immigration began in the 1890s through contracts for railroad construction and agriculture in northern states like Sonora and Baja California, with nearly 10,000 settling by 1910; many transitioned from temporary labor to permanent farming communities, though numbers remained modest compared to Pacific destinations.^[33] Argentine Issei arrivals commenced in 1908–1909, predominantly from Okinawa and Kagoshima, totaling several thousand by the 1920s; they established rural colonies in Misiones Province for yerba mate cultivation and later diversified into urban trades in Buenos Aires.^[34] In Peru, the inaugural group of 790 Issei docked in Callao on April 3, 1899, recruited for sugar plantations and guano extraction; subsequent waves raised the pre-World War II population to about 16,300 by 1941, concentrated in coastal valleys for cotton and rice farming.^[23] These outlying settlements mirrored broader Issei patterns of chain migration and adaptation to export-oriented economies, though often under exploitative contracts and regional hostilities.^[35]

Socioeconomic Adaptation

Occupational Roles and Economic Contributions

Upon arrival in Hawaii beginning in 1885, Issei primarily served as contract laborers on sugar plantations, earning roughly 17.65 yen per month.^[36] On the U.S. mainland, many shifted to manual labor in railroads, oil fields, fishing, canneries, and mining before entering agriculture, where they cultivated crops like potatoes, asparagus, and onions in regions such as the San Joaquin Valley.^[4] In California agriculture, Issei focused on labor-intensive truck farming of perishable, high-value produce including strawberries, tomatoes, celery, and peppers. Pre-World War II, two-thirds of West Coast Japanese Americans worked in farming; Issei and their descendants supplied over 70 percent of greenhouse flowers and 40 percent of commercial vegetables, despite Japanese-operated farms representing just 2 percent of total West Coast acreage but with land values averaging $280 per acre versus $38 for non-Japanese farms.^[37] They achieved this through vertical integration, organizing cooperatives for cultivation, packing, processing, and direct marketing to urban markets, which minimized intermediaries and maximized returns.^[4] Issei's remittances to Japan underscored their economic role, rising to $2 million annually from 1900 to 1907 and occasionally equating to 2 percent of Japan's total export value, funding rural development and family support back home.^[36] In Brazil, Issei arriving via the Kasato Maru in 1908 initially toiled on coffee plantations but rapidly transitioned to independent farming, acquiring land in São Paulo and Paraná to grow coffee, rice, and adapted Japanese vegetables and fruits. By the 1940s, 90 percent lived rurally, enhancing Brazil's agricultural diversity and productivity through intensive smallholder methods that supported national exports.^[25]

Community Formation and Institutions

Issei immigrants, arriving primarily between 1885 and 1924, formed cohesive ethnic communities in response to geographic clustering by labor opportunities and social exclusion from broader society. In Hawaii and the U.S. mainland, particularly California, they established urban enclaves known as Japantowns and rural agricultural settlements, often organized by prefectural origins from Japan to foster mutual support amid discrimination.^[1] These communities emphasized solidarity, with Issei prioritizing family networks and shared cultural practices to navigate economic hardships and legal barriers like the 1924 Immigration Act, which halted further influx.^[1] Central to community cohesion were kenjinkai, prefectural associations that provided mutual aid for illness, death benefits, and social events such as picnics and dinners, helping immigrants maintain ties to their Japanese regions while adapting locally.^[38] By the early 20th century, dozens of such groups operated in major settlements, extending beyond aid to sponsor cultural preservation and economic networking. Religious institutions further anchored communities: Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines served as social hubs for rituals and gatherings, while Christian missions, starting with Reverend Takie Okumura's arrival in Hawaii in 1894, promoted education and assimilation efforts among Nisei children through activities like scouting and picnics.^[1]^[39] Educational institutions, particularly Japanese language schools, emerged as key preservers of heritage, supplementing public schooling with instruction in language, history, and ethics from Japan's curriculum. The first such school opened in Hawaii in 1893 on the island of Hawai'i, with rapid expansion to over 150 by 1920, enrolling tens of thousands of Nisei students after regular classes.^[40] In California, more than 100 schools operated by the 1920s, doubling as community centers for Issei parents' meetings and cultural events, despite growing anti-Japanese pressures that led to regulatory challenges.^[41]^[42] Economic and civic organizations included the Japanese Association, a conservative Issei-led body that coordinated community responses to external threats, and early chambers of commerce facilitating trade in imported goods like tofu and confections through Japanese firms.^[1] Japanese-language newspapers proliferated to disseminate news from home and local advocacy, while hospitals and mutual aid societies addressed healthcare gaps in underserved areas. In Brazil, where Issei arrived starting in 1908, similar patterns emerged with community-founded schools teaching Japanese language and culture, alongside agricultural cooperatives, though permanent settlement solidified post-1930s amid repatriation failures.^[39]^[43] These institutions collectively sustained Issei resilience, blending Japanese traditions with adaptive strategies until wartime disruptions.^[1]

Discrimination and Legal Barriers

Anti-Asian Laws and Racial Policies

In the United States, Japanese immigrants, or Issei, encountered escalating federal and state-level restrictions designed to curb their entry and economic integration, rooted in widespread anti-Asian nativism fueled by labor competition and racial anxieties on the West Coast. The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907, an informal pact between the U.S. and Japan, prompted Tokyo to halt the issuance of passports to unskilled laborers destined for the continental U.S., following California's school segregation of Japanese children and threats of broader exclusionary legislation; this effectively reduced Japanese male immigration from over 30,000 annually prior to 1908 to near zero for laborers, though family members and students could still enter.^[44]^[45] State-level measures intensified economic barriers, exemplified by California's Alien Land Law of 1913, which prohibited "aliens ineligible for citizenship"—a category encompassing all Asian immigrants under prevailing naturalization statutes—from owning or leasing agricultural land for more than three years, targeting Japanese farmers who had acquired significant acreage through diligence in states like California, Washington, and Oregon. This law, upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Terrace v. Thompson (1923), led to the loss of approximately 74,000 acres of Japanese-held farmland in California alone by the 1920s, as Issei resorted to proxy ownership via U.S.-born children or faced divestment. Complementary federal policy culminated in the Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson-Reed Act), which imposed national-origin quotas based on the 1890 census—favoring Northern Europeans—and explicitly barred immigration from Japan and most of Asia via the "Asiatic Barred Zone," reducing Japanese arrivals to negligible numbers until World War II and reinforcing Issei's status as perpetual aliens ineligible for naturalization under laws tracing to the Naturalization Act of 1790, which confined citizenship to "free white persons" of good character.^[46]^[47]^[48] In Hawaii, where Issei comprised a substantial portion of the plantation workforce after 1885, territorial governance imposed fewer outright bans but enforced racial hierarchies through labor contracts and limited political rights, with Japanese barred from voting and facing episodic strikes suppressed amid fears of "Asiatic" dominance in the islands' economy. Canada's British Columbia mirrored U.S. patterns with provincial anti-Asian ordinances from the 1880s onward, including fishing license restrictions and employment bans in certain trades aimed at Japanese arrivals, who numbered around 1,200 by 1901; a 1907 Vancouver riot by white laborers underscored mob-level enforcement of these policies, prompting federal negotiations akin to the U.S. Gentlemen's Agreement to cap Japanese entries at 400 annually by 1908.^[10]^[49] Latin American host nations exhibited varied but generally less formalized pre-World War II exclusions compared to North America, though Peru enacted decrees in the 1930s limiting Japanese business ownership and immigration quotas amid economic competition from Issei merchants and farmers, who had established communities since 1899; Brazil, by contrast, maintained relatively open policies until the 1930s, admitting over 100,000 Japanese by 1934 without land ownership bans, though sporadic provincial regulations curbed settlement in sensitive agricultural zones. These policies collectively perpetuated Issei's marginalization, denying property rights, citizenship, and family reunification while prioritizing white settler economies, as evidenced by persistent low naturalization rates—zero for Japanese in the U.S. until 1952—and forced reliance on ethnic enclaves for survival.^[50]^[51] Issei immigrants in the United States, especially on the West Coast, faced routine social exclusion rooted in economic fears and racial stereotypes portraying them as unassimilable threats to white labor. Public businesses frequently posted exclusionary signs like "No Japs Allowed" at entrances to restaurants, barbershops, and hotels, enforcing de facto segregation in daily commerce.^[52] Neighborhood covenants and informal vigilantism confined Issei to overcrowded ethnic enclaves, such as Japantowns in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where they endured verbal harassment, including slurs and accusations of disloyalty, during routine interactions like shopping or commuting.^[53] Employers imposed discriminatory hiring practices, relegating Issei to low-wage manual labor while denying promotions or skilled roles, which compounded their social marginalization by reinforcing perceptions of inferiority.^[54] In Hawaii, where Issei comprised a significant portion of the plantation workforce by the early 1900s, everyday prejudices were somewhat tempered by economic interdependence but still evident in social hierarchies. White planters and overseers treated Issei with condescension, limiting their access to supervisory positions and social clubs, while community tensions occasionally erupted into fistfights or boycotts against Japanese-owned stores.^[55] School segregation policies, such as those in Honolulu until 1930, separated Japanese children, fostering intergenerational exclusion that mirrored adult experiences of being viewed as perpetual foreigners despite decades of residence.^[56] Japanese immigrants in Brazil encountered milder but persistent everyday prejudices, primarily in urban centers where cultural unfamiliarity bred suspicion. Rural coffee plantation workers, arriving from 1908 onward, faced isolation in company barracks with limited interracial socializing, leading to stereotypes of clannishness; in cities like São Paulo, Issei dealt with service denials at establishments and casual epithets emphasizing their "otherness," though outright violence was rare pre-World War II.^[57] These prejudices stemmed from host society anxieties over job competition and cultural dilution, yet Brazil's labor shortages initially promoted pragmatic tolerance compared to U.S. nativism.^[58]

World War II Experiences

Pre-War Loyalties and Divisions

The Issei, as Japanese nationals ineligible for naturalization under U.S. laws such as the 1790 Naturalization Act and subsequent restrictions, retained legal allegiance to the Emperor of Japan, which mandated loyalty oaths and subject status regardless of their long-term residence in America.^[1] By 1941, approximately 40,000 Issei comprised about one-third of the 120,000 Japanese Americans on the mainland, having arrived primarily between 1890 and 1924, with many living in the U.S. for over 25 years and averaging 52 years old at the onset of war.^[1] This status fostered sentimental attachments to Japan, manifested in remittances to families, subscriptions to Japanese-language newspapers, and participation in cultural events honoring the Emperor, such as birthday celebrations and Shinto rituals, though these were often framed as preserving heritage amid exclusion rather than active political allegiance.^[1] Japanese associations, numbering over 100 by the 1930s and serving as extensions of Japanese consulates, reinforced these ties by promoting moral and educational reforms to mold immigrants into "proper Japanese subjects," including language schools attended by thousands of children and coercive measures against behaviors deemed un-Japanese.^[59] These organizations, dominated by community elites, prioritized reputation-building to counter U.S. anti-Japanese agitation, but their emphasis on imperial loyalty and ties to Tokyo deepened perceptions of divided allegiances, particularly as Japan pursued expansionist policies in Asia from 1931 onward.^[59] The 1941 Munson Report, a pre-Pearl Harbor intelligence assessment, characterized Issei loyalty to Japan as "romantic" yet diluted by decades of U.S. investment in family and property, noting no evidence of organized subversion and a willingness to accept citizenship if offered, though cultural insularity persisted among older immigrants.^[60] Internal divisions among Issei were less factional than generational and socioeconomic, with conservative leaders in associations clashing with laborers over assimilation pressures, while broader tensions arose from the sojourner mindset of early male immigrants versus the settler orientation of post-1908 picture brides and their families.^[1] These rifts compounded with Nisei pushback against Issei authority, as seen in the Japanese American Citizens League's advocacy for U.S. loyalty and English-language integration starting in the 1920s, which challenged traditional Issei community structures.^[1] Kibei—Nisei educated in Japan, numbering around 20,000—further highlighted divides, often viewed suspiciously by both Issei traditionalists and Americanized Nisei for their hybrid influences, though they represented a minority within the broader community.^[1] Overall, pre-war loyalties reflected pragmatic adaptation to discriminatory barriers rather than overt dual allegiance, with no documented cases of Issei espionage or sabotage against the U.S. prior to December 7, 1941.^[60]

Internment Policies and Implementation

In the United States, the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, prompted immediate measures against Japanese residents, including the FBI's arrest of approximately 1,500 Issei community leaders and priests classified as potentially dangerous enemy aliens under Presidential Proclamations 2525, 2526, and 2527 issued in the days following.^[61] On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, empowering the Secretary of War and military commanders to designate "military areas" from which any persons could be excluded for national security reasons, effectively targeting West Coast Japanese communities without specifying ethnicity.^[62] This policy resulted in the forced removal of roughly 120,000 individuals of Japanese descent, including about 40,000 Issei ineligible for U.S. citizenship, from their homes primarily in California, Washington, and Oregon.^[61] Implementation began with Civilian Exclusion Orders issued by Lt. Gen. John L. DeWitt starting in March 1942, requiring affected families to report to temporary assembly centers at fairgrounds and racetracks, where they were held in horse stalls and barracks under Army oversight until transfer to 10 permanent interior relocation centers operated by the War Relocation Authority (WRA) by summer 1942, such as Manzanar and Heart Mountain.^[63] Issei faced acute challenges in these facilities due to their status as non-citizens, limited English proficiency, and prior loss of businesses and farms, with the WRA enforcing loyalty questionnaires in 1943 to segregate "disloyal" detainees, including many Issei, into higher-security sites like Tule Lake.^[64] In Canada, policies mirrored U.S. actions amid fears of espionage along the Pacific coast; on February 24, 1942, the government enacted the War Measures Act to designate a protected zone 100 miles inland from British Columbia's coast, leading to the uprooting of over 22,000 Japanese Canadians—about 90% of the national total, predominantly Issei and their families.^[65] Implementation involved the British Columbia Security Commission overseeing rapid evacuations starting in March 1942, dispersing evacuees to self-supporting camps in the BC interior (housing around 12,000), road labor camps for men (about 1,000), sugar beet farms in the Prairies (over 3,000 families), and urban work placements elsewhere, with property liquidation forced at undervalued prices and fishing boats confiscated.^[65] Issei, as pre-1924 immigrants lacking citizenship, were particularly vulnerable, with many older individuals enduring harsh conditions in remote sites lacking adequate medical care or family reunification options until partial releases began in 1945, though full repatriation rights were not restored until 1949.^[65] Elsewhere in the Americas, internment was less systematic for Issei communities; in Latin America, the U.S. State Department and Immigration and Naturalization Service negotiated with governments in Peru, Panama, and others to deport suspected Japanese nationals—primarily Issei—as "dangerous enemy aliens," resulting in over 2,000 such individuals shipped to U.S. Department of Justice camps like Crystal City, Texas, for interrogation and exchange with American civilians held by Japan.^[66] Brazil, home to the largest Issei population outside Japan, imposed surveillance, travel bans, and asset freezes on Japanese residents after declaring war on the Axis in August 1942 but avoided mass internment camps, opting instead for individual detentions of around 300 suspected leaders while allowing most to remain under restrictions.^[67] These U.S.-orchestrated deportations from Latin America, often without due process, integrated foreign Issei into the same facilities as domestic ones, exacerbating overcrowding and cultural isolation.^[68]

Internal Controversies and Resistance

Within the internment camps, the U.S. government's 1943 loyalty questionnaire exacerbated preexisting tensions among Issei, who were legally Japanese citizens ineligible for naturalization under the Immigration Act of 1924. Question 28 required internees to affirm unqualified allegiance to the United States while forsaking obedience to the Japanese emperor, a dilemma for Issei holding only Japanese nationality; affirmative answers risked statelessness, as Japan did not permit renunciation without formal expatriation processes. Approximately 22,000 individuals, predominantly Issei, responded negatively to one or both loyalty questions, often prioritizing legal preservation over perceived coercion rather than endorsing Japanese militarism, though interpretations varied.^[69]^[70] This led to the segregation of over 12,000 "disloyal" internees to Tule Lake in 1943-1944, fracturing families where Nisei siblings or children affirmed loyalty, and fostering resentment toward assimilationist groups like the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL), which advocated compliance.^[71] At Tule Lake, internal divisions sharpened with the emergence of pro-nationalist factions, including the Sokuji Kikoku Hoshidan (Organization for Immediate Return to the Homeland to Serve), formed in November 1943 by Issei leaders seeking repatriation to aid Japan's war effort. Numbering around 2,000 members at its peak, the group published bulletins promoting expatriation and resegregation of resisters, clashing with camp authorities through strikes and demands for better conditions, while alienating pro-U.S. internees who viewed it as unduly sympathetic to the Axis.^[72]^[73] These tensions reflected broader causal factors: prewar cultural ties to Japan among rural-origin Issei, compounded by internment's humiliations, versus pressures for Americanization; however, U.S. officials often conflated protest with espionage risk, justifying stockades and indefinite isolation without due process.^[74] Issei also mounted direct resistance against camp policies and the draft, viewing conscription of Nisei sons as exploitative amid unresolved grievances. Issei mothers, drawing on maternal authority and prewar community organizing experience, spearheaded petitions in camps like Minidoka and Heart Mountain starting in early 1943, arguing that demanding military service from U.S. citizens while imprisoning families without trial violated constitutional rights.^[75] These efforts influenced the Fair Play Committee, a Nisei-led draft resistance group at Heart Mountain that organized 63 refusals by 1944, though Issei participation was limited by age and alien status; broader Issei-led work stoppages, such as at Poston in 1942 and Tule Lake in 1943, protested inadequate food, medical care, and forced labor, resulting in martial law impositions and further segregations.^[76] Such actions underscored principled opposition to internment's legal foundations, yet post-segregation stigma from compliant factions persisted, highlighting credibility issues in JACL narratives that prioritized loyalty optics over unified advocacy.^[77]

Post-War Outcomes and Legacy

Resettlement and Economic Recovery

Following the rescission of exclusion orders on December 17, 1944, and the closure of most War Relocation Authority camps by the end of 1945—with the final camp shutting down in March 1946—Issei began resettling outside the internment facilities.^[61] Many faced ongoing hostility on the West Coast, prompting dispersal to Midwestern and Eastern cities such as Chicago and New York, where community networks and church groups provided initial support for housing and employment.^[78] The federal government offered minimal assistance upon release, typically $25 per adult and smaller amounts for minors, alongside one-way transportation, but this proved insufficient for rebuilding lives disrupted by forced removal.^[79] Issei endured profound economic devastation, having lost an estimated $400 million in property, including farms, businesses, and homes sold at distress prices or vandalized during their absence.^[80] Pre-war prosperity in agriculture, fishing, and small enterprises—sectors where Issei had established niches despite legal barriers like alien land laws—evaporated, leaving many elderly Issei (often in their 50s or older) without savings or professional networks.^[81] Persistent discrimination compounded these losses, restricting access to credit, housing, and higher-wage jobs, while Issei's ineligibility for U.S. citizenship until the 1952 McCarran-Walter Act limited legal protections and opportunities.^[78] Economic recovery for Issei relied on familial labor, ethnic enclave economies, and incremental entrepreneurship rather than substantial reparations. The 1948 Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act disbursed about $38 million in partial compensation for verifiable losses, but claims processes were protracted and underfunded, yielding averages far below actual damages.^[80] Many Issei pivoted to low-capital ventures like truck farming, nursery work, and landscaping in California and urban areas, leveraging pre-war skills in horticulture to serve niche markets underserved by larger operations.^[78] By the early 1950s, these efforts, supported by Nisei relatives and mutual aid societies, enabled modest stability, though Issei often remained in menial roles with incomes below national medians, deferring wealth accumulation to subsequent generations.^[82] Full redress, including $20,000 per survivor under the 1988 Civil Liberties Act, arrived decades later, long after most Issei had passed.^[80]

Generational Transitions and Assimilation

Following World War II, the Issei generation, having endured internment and economic displacement, increasingly deferred leadership roles within Japanese American communities to their Nisei children, who demonstrated loyalty through military service in units like the 442nd Regimental Combat Team and subsequently pursued higher education and professional careers at rates surpassing the national average.^[83]^[84] This shift marked a causal pivot from agrarian, community-bound Issei networks—often centered on ethnic enclaves and Japanese-language institutions—to urban, individualistic Nisei trajectories, facilitated by the 1952 McCarran-Walter Act granting Issei naturalization rights but accelerating younger generations' detachment from parental cultural norms.^[85] Assimilation intensified among the Nisei and Sansei through linguistic attrition, with Japanese language proficiency plummeting as public schools and internment-era policies discouraged its use, resulting in most Nisei adopting English monolingualism and transmitting minimal heritage language to offspring.^[86] By the third generation (Sansei), born predominantly after 1945, cultural retention focused on selective traditions like family obligations rather than daily practices, evidenced by surveys showing Sansei identifying more strongly with American civic values than ethnic insularity.^[87] Intermarriage rates underscored this trend: Nisei exogamy hovered around 8-10% in early post-war decades, rising to over 34% among Sansei by the 1970s and exceeding 50-60% by the 1980s-1990s, correlating with socioeconomic integration into white-collar professions and suburban dispersal.^[88]^[89]^[90] These transitions were not uniform; some Nisei retained Issei-influenced values like perseverance amid adversity, yet causal factors such as wartime stigma and post-war economic incentives— including GI Bill access for Nisei veterans—drove broader convergence with mainstream norms, diminishing distinct ethnic enclaves by the 1960s.^[64] Among Sansei, this yielded high educational attainment (e.g., over 40% college graduates by 1970, per census-linked studies) but occasional identity tensions, as parental silence on internment experiences limited intergenerational transmission of resilience narratives.^[91] Overall, assimilation proceeded via structural incentives rather than coercion post-1945, yielding a diaspora where fourth- and fifth-generation Yonsei/Gosei exhibit minimal linguistic or residential segregation from non-Japanese peers.^[92]

Long-Term Impact on Japanese Diaspora

The Issei generation's pioneering efforts in agriculture and small businesses laid the economic foundations for subsequent Nikkei communities in the United States, where their labor-intensive farming in California and Hawaii enabled Nisei to access higher education and professional fields post-World War II, contributing to the group's median household income surpassing the national average by the 1970s.^[93] This legacy of diligence persisted, with Sansei and Yonsei achieving prominence in technology, medicine, and academia, though often at the cost of cultural dilution through intermarriage rates exceeding 50% among third-generation Japanese Americans by the late 20th century.^[94] Wartime internment profoundly influenced intergenerational dynamics, as Issei's loss of property—estimated at over $400 million in 1940s values—and community disruption instilled caution and silence in Nisei parents, delaying open discussion of trauma until Sansei advocacy in the 1960s-1980s led to the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, providing symbolic redress and fostering ethnic identity revival among younger generations.^[95] Psychological studies indicate persistent effects, including elevated stress responses in descendants linked to inherited epigenetic markers from internment-era hardships, underscoring causal chains from Issei exclusion to multigenerational resilience tempered by wariness of institutional authority.^[96] In Brazil, home to the world's largest Japanese diaspora of approximately 2 million Nikkei, Issei's initial coffee plantation labor from 1908 onward evolved into entrepreneurial dominance in urban trade and industry, yielding a community with literacy rates above 99% and disproportionate representation in professions by the 1980s, despite facing sporadic discrimination during the Vargas era's nationalist policies.^[25] This success model reinforced endogamy and Japanese-language schools, preserving traditions like Shinto practices and festivals into Yonsei cohorts, though globalization has prompted hybrid identities blending samba with taiko drumming.^[97] Across the diaspora, Issei's emphasis on education and frugality mitigated assimilation pressures, enabling Nikkei in Peru and Canada to rebound from similar wartime confiscations—such as Peru's internment of 1,800 Japanese Peruvians—through community organizations that by 2000 supported global networks sustaining remittances to Japan until the 1990s economic shifts.^[1] However, rapid intermarriage and urban dispersal risk eroding distinct Issei-influenced traits, with surveys showing fourth-generation youth prioritizing pan-Asian affiliations over pure ethnic loyalty.^[98]

Notable Issei Figures

Pioneers in Business and Agriculture

Issei immigrants played a pivotal role in advancing commercial agriculture in the United States, particularly in California, by applying labor-intensive techniques from Japan to reclaim marginal lands and cultivate specialty crops that boosted local economies. Arriving primarily between the 1880s and 1920s, they focused on high-yield ventures like vegetable truck farming, berries, and staple tubers, often leasing land due to prohibitions on alien ownership under laws such as California's Alien Land Law of 1913. By 1920, Japanese-operated farms produced nearly 10% of the state's truck crops despite comprising less than 2% of the population, demonstrating superior productivity through meticulous soil preparation, irrigation innovations, and crop rotation.^[99]^[100] One of the most prominent figures was George Shima, born Kinji Ushijima in 1864 in Kurume, Japan, who immigrated to the U.S. in 1889 and settled in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Starting as a laborer, Shima purchased swampy tule lands, drained them using Chinese dikes and Japanese farming methods, and shifted to potatoes after initial failures with beans and rice; by 1909, his operations spanned over 28,000 acres, supplying about 85% of California's potato crop and generating an estate valued at $15 million upon his death in 1926, marking him as the first Japanese American millionaire.^[101]^[99] Shima's vertical integration, including storage and distribution, exemplified Issei business acumen, though he faced challenges from discriminatory land laws that forced reliance on proxies and leases.^[101] Keisaburo Koda, born in 1882 in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan, immigrated in the early 1900s and founded Koda Farms in 1928 near Dos Palos, California, pioneering large-scale rice cultivation on 10,000 acres of converted swampland. Dubbed the "Rice King," Koda innovated milling and branding processes, achieving pre-World War II dominance in U.S. rice production through family-managed operations that emphasized quality control and market expansion.^[102]^[99]^[103] In berry farming, Riichi Satow established operations in Florin and Sacramento areas around 1900, capturing 70% of California's strawberry market by 1910 via intensive hand-cultivation on small leased plots. Satow founded the Strawberry Growers' Association in 1907, enabling cooperative bargaining, bulk shipping to urban markets, and access to credit, which scaled individual efforts into a regional industry powerhouse.^[99] Beyond California, Issei like those in Washington's Yakima Valley from the 1890s developed apple orchards and vegetable farms on leased federal lands, introducing pest-resistant varieties and flood irrigation that sustained communities despite periodic expulsions and the 1920 state alien land act.^[104] In Hawaii, over 38,000 Issei labored in sugar and pineapple plantations by 1909, with some transitioning to independent truck farms supplying Honolulu markets, though ownership remained limited by contract systems.^[99] These ventures not only generated wealth—Issei agricultural output rivaled larger ethnic groups—but also provoked resentment, as their efficiency undercut less productive competitors, fueling exclusionary movements.^[105]^[104]

Cultural and Political Contributors

Issei artists in the Pacific Northwest, such as Kamekichi Tokita (1897–1948), who immigrated to Seattle in 1919, produced modernist paintings of urban landscapes and portraits that earned local acclaim before World War II, with works later exhibited posthumously despite internment disruptions.^[106] Contemporaries Takuichi Fujii (1900–1964) and Kenjiro Nomura (1896–1956), also Issei immigrants from the 1910s–1920s, depicted everyday immigrant life and natural scenes in oil and watercolor, contributing to early recognition of Japanese American visual arts amid rising anti-Asian sentiment.^[107] In literature, Issei maintained Japanese-language traditions through poetry and essays that chronicled labor, displacement, and cultural adaptation, often published in ethnic newspapers. Efforts like the Issei Poetry Project have archived and translated pre-war works from Los Angeles communities, revealing avant-garde haiku and tanka forms addressing alienation and perseverance.^[108] Writers such as Ayako Ishigaki (1903–2007), an immigrant to New York in the 1920s, advanced progressive and feminist themes in essays critiquing immigrant exploitation, influencing later ethnic literature despite limited mainstream access.^[109] Politically, Issei exerted influence indirectly through community organizations and media, as U.S. laws barred them from naturalization until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, restricting formal participation.^[110] Yona Tsuda Abiko (1875–1965), after her husband's death in 1936, led the Nichibei Shimbun newspaper in San Francisco, advocating for Issei welfare, women's education via programs like Kengaku Dan, and Christian community initiatives including the Japanese YWCA.^[111] Labor activist Ishiko Shibuya Mori (1887–1975) organized Japanese women workers in Hawaii against exploitative conditions in the 1920s, enduring nine months' imprisonment for her union efforts, which challenged colonial labor hierarchies.^[111] Such advocacy often intersected with cultural preservation, as Issei leaders used newspapers and associations to counter pre-war alien land laws and promote loyalty amid political marginalization.^[112]

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Jan 29, 2021 · While most Nisei kept silent about their experiences, Sansei sensed their pain and advocated for more public recognition of the injustice.
[96]
[PDF] Intergenerational Effects of the Japanese American Internment
Miyoshi hypothe- sized that "the Sansei are heir to ethnic values that have been passed down to them from their. Issei grandparents through their Nisei parents" ...
[97]
[PDF] How Historical Context Matters for Fourth and Fifth Generation ...
Jan 19, 2021 · A separate term also identifies and separates Japanese Americans whose par- ents arrived after World War II, the Shin-Issei or Shin-Nisei, which ...
[98]
Becoming Nikkei: creating, challenging, and expanding Nikkei ...
Jul 14, 2025 · The term Nikkei emerged in the Americas, post-Second World War, to describe persons of Japanese descent living abroad.
[99]
Ethnic Identity, Culture, and Race: Japanese and Nikkei at Home ...
Sep 13, 2010 · Discussions of Japanese transnational migrants and Nikkei have focused on social and political issues, such as racial discrimination or the internment camps.
[100]
Issei Pioneers - Hawaii and the Mainland 1885-1924 - Part 11
Mar 14, 2011 · Many of the Issei moved from migrant laborers to contract farming and from share-cropping to cash-leasing or landownership. California was ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
[101]
JAPANESE | Encyclopedia of the Great Plains
Issei first engaged in agriculture as contract laborers. While European Americans could obtain land through the Homestead Act or outright purchase, the majority ...
[102]
Remembering the Potato King (U.S. National Park Service)
Jan 31, 2020 · George Shima, born Ushijima Kinji in Kurume, Japan, immigrated to the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta NHA and farmed potatoes so successfully that he became the ...
[103]
Rice Farm & Mill – Since 1928 - Koda Farms
HISTORY OF KODA FARMS. Our Heritage, Our Roots. Our grandfather, Keisaburo Koda, was born in 1882 in the Fukushima prefecture of Japan.
[104]
The Rice King of California - The Kitchn
Jun 11, 2021 · In 1928, Keisaburo Koda founded what is now Koda Farms, the oldest family-owned rice farm in California. While the rice has become a ...
[105]
Japanese Immigration and Settlement in the Yakima Valley (1890s ...
Jun 16, 2025 · The first immigrants, the Issei, came in the 1890s, bringing with them shared traditions and cultural values of harmony, respect, and collective identity.
[106]
Issei Pioneers - Hawaii and the Mainland 1885-1924 - Part 12
Mar 21, 2011 · The achievements of the Issei in agriculture undoubtedly played a major part in the growing animosity. In 1920, Japanese farms produced ...Missing: notable entrepreneurs
[107]
Kamekichi Tokita | Densho Encyclopedia
Dec 21, 2023 · Kamekichi Tokita (1897-1948) immigrated to Seattle in 1919, where he became a small businessman and a well-recognized artist.
[108]
Stories of Pacific Northwest Issei Artists Who Achieved Recognition ...
Jul 29, 2024 · These three Issei artists, all born in Japan in the 1890s, were Kamekichi Tokita, Takuichi Fujii, and Kenjiro Nomura.
[109]
Issei Poetry Project - JACCC
The Issei Poetry Project seeks to recover, preserve, and share the Japanese-language literature of Los Angeles' Issei (first-generation) writers.Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[110]
Ayako Ishigaki: Radical Issei Feminist Writer in Mid-Century America
Oct 20, 2020 · In the years surrounding World War II, the Japanese-born writer and progressive activist Ayako Ishigaki lived in exile in New York and Los ...
[111]
https://densho.org/catalyst/4-badass-issei-women/
[112]
4 Bad Ass Issei Women You've Probably Never Heard Of - Densho
Mar 21, 2017 · 4 Bad Ass Issei Women You've Probably Never Heard Of · 1. YONA TSUDA ABIKO · 2. ISHIKO SHIBUYA MORI · 3. MITSU YASHIMA · 4. TOME YASUTAKE.
[113]
Nisei and Issei Chapter 1: Before Pearl Harbor - NPS History
Jan 8, 2007 · *The Issei are the immigrant generation from Japan; the first generation born in the United states are Nisei, the second generation born here, ...