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Late Neolithic

The Late Neolithic represents the concluding phase of the Neolithic period in archaeological terms, a transformative era in human prehistory characterized by intensified agricultural practices, the emergence of monumental architecture, and early signs of social complexity, with timelines varying regionally—for instance, spanning ca. 7000–5000 BCE in the Near East but generally from the late fifth to third millennia BCE (ca. 4500–2000 BCE) in Europe. In temperate Europe, this period roughly aligns with the late fifth to fourth millennia BCE (ca. 4500–3000 BCE), during which communities expanded settled farming lifestyles across diverse landscapes, transitioning from earlier Neolithic foundations laid by the spread of domesticates from the Near East. Key defining features include the refinement of stone tool technologies, such as polished axes for woodland clearance, and the cultivation of staple crops like emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon), einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum), and barley (Hordeum vulgare), which supported population growth and denser settlements. Economically, the Late Neolithic saw the dominance of in regions with suitable climates and fertile soils in central and , yielding high initial harvests of up to 5 tons per due to nutrient-rich from burning. This method, involving direct sowing without plowing, facilitated the creation of anthropogenic landscapes or "anthrosols" but required periodic relocation of fields to maintain productivity, contributing to a semi-sedentary pattern of village life. Technological innovations included the production of finer ceramics and the experimental use of in some areas, foreshadowing the or Copper Age, while focused on , sheep, and pigs for meat, dairy, and traction. Regionally, in , the period ended around 4000 BCE with rich material cultures featuring decorated pottery and figurines, followed by a transitional gap before the Early . Socially and culturally, Late Neolithic societies exhibited growing complexity, evidenced by the construction of megalithic structures—such as passage tombs and stone circles—in western and , which served as communal sites and possibly centers, linking related groups across landscapes. These monuments, like those associated with the , reflect organized labor and shared ideologies, alongside emerging hierarchies indicated by prestige goods in elite s and fortified settlements in some regions. Evidence of inter-community conflict, including skeletal trauma from , suggests tensions over resources amid population pressures, while craft specialization in and ornaments points to increased trade networks. Overall, the Late Neolithic bridged foraging-hunting origins and metal-age societies, laying groundwork for the through adaptive responses to environmental and demographic challenges.

Definition and Characteristics

Chronology and Regional Variations

The Late Neolithic represents the final phase of the period, a time of increasing social complexity, technological refinement, and cultural elaboration following earlier stages of agricultural adoption. In the context of and adjacent areas, it generally spans the fourth and third millennia BCE (ca. 4500–2500 BCE), varying by region due to differences in the pace of Neolithic expansion, local adaptations, and environmental factors. This phase precedes the or early , marked by the initial use of metals. While the term "Late Neolithic" is primarily applied in archaeology, analogous late prehistoric phases occur elsewhere, such as the final Neolithic in the (ca. 5500–4000 BCE) or late phases in , though with different terminologies and timelines detailed in subsequent sections. In temperate , the Late Neolithic aligns with ca. 4500–3000 BCE, building on the foundations of Early and Middle Neolithic farming communities that spread from around 6500 BCE. Regional variations include an earlier end around 4000 BCE in , transitioning to cultures, and extension to ca. 2500 BCE in northern and western areas with cultures like Funnelbeaker and Corded Ware precursors. In , late Neolithic phases date to ca. 3000–2600 BCE, while in , they extend to ca. 2000 BCE, incorporating local agricultural traditions. These differences arise from the gradual diffusion of farming practices, modulated by , , and innovations, with the Late phase characterized by intensification rather than initial adoption.

Technological and Cultural Developments

During the Late Neolithic, ceramic technology was already well-established from earlier phases, but saw refinements in production techniques and decorative styles, such as cord-impressed wares in Europe, supporting advanced food processing and storage for growing populations. Agricultural practices intensified with the widespread use of polished stone axes for land clearance, cultivation of staple cereals like emmer and einkorn wheat, and barley on fertile soils, often employing slash-and-burn methods that yielded high initial harvests but required field rotation. Animal husbandry emphasized cattle, sheep, and pigs for meat, dairy, and draft power, enhancing productivity and supporting denser settlements. Early experiments with copper metallurgy appeared in some regions, particularly in the Balkans and central Europe, signaling the transition to the Copper Age. Settlement patterns evolved toward larger, more permanent villages with organized layouts, such as longhouses in or clustered dwellings accommodating communities of several hundred, often near monumental structures. advanced through specialized ground stone tools, including axes from imported materials indicating , and early textiles evidenced by weights. Symbolic expressions included clay figurines and megalithic monuments like passage tombs and stone circles, serving and functions. Social organization displayed emerging complexity, with evidence of hierarchies from prestige goods in burials, fortified enclosures, and skeletal suggesting inter-group . Genetic studies of sites like Gurgy in (ca. 4850–4500 BCE) reveal patrilineal , female , and corporate leadership structures fostering community ties.

Origins in the Near East

Southern Levant

The Late Neolithic in the , spanning approximately 7000–5000 BCE, followed the collapse of the (PPNB) around 7000 BCE, a period marked by environmental stressors such as that led to the abandonment of large sedentary villages and a shift toward more dispersed, mobile communities. This transition reflected local adaptations to semi-arid conditions, with continuity in economies but greater emphasis on and seasonal exploitation of resources, particularly in marginal zones like the and deserts. Key cultures of this period included the Yarmukian (c. 6500–6000 BCE), centered in the Mediterranean and , known for its distinctive herringbone-decorated and small-scale settlements focused on supplemented by . Succeeding it was the Wadi Rabah culture (c. 6000–5000 BCE), which featured more refined traditions, including incised and combed wares, and evidence of intensified alongside crop cultivation in riverine areas. In the arid periphery, the Timnian culture (c. 6000–3000 BCE) emerged as a nomadic pastoralist complex, characterized by mobile herder-hunter groups using seasonal camps and producing coarse, handmade suited to desert mobility. Representative sites illustrate these developments: Munhata in the shows stratigraphic continuity from Yarmukian to Wadi Rabah phases, with mud-brick houses, storage facilities, and faunal remains indicating a blend of domesticated goats, sheep, and wild game, underscoring increased mobility within a farming framework. Similarly, 'Ain Ghazal in central , primarily a PPNB site, exhibits early Pottery Neolithic layers with rudimentary coarse wares and signs of post-collapse resettlement by smaller groups practicing herding in the surrounding highlands. Timnian adaptations are evident at desert sites like those in the , where ephemeral campsites reveal lithic tools for processing wild plants and animals, alongside tumuli burials reflecting among pastoral nomads. Evidence of interregional interactions includes artifacts sourced from Anatolian deposits, such as , found at Pottery Neolithic sites like Munhata and Sha'ar Hagolan, suggesting long-distance exchange networks that connected the to northern regions for raw materials. These trade links also extended eastward, with parallels in pottery styles and goods indicating contacts with Mesopotamian groups, facilitating the flow of ideas and resources amid the period's adaptive shifts.

Mesopotamia

The Late Neolithic in , spanning approximately 7000–3800 BCE, marked a period of significant cultural diversification and agricultural intensification in the fertile river valleys of the and , transitioning from early pottery-using villages to more complex societies with emerging urban precursors. This era encompassed the Pottery Neolithic and extended into the , characterized by the adoption of irrigation systems, specialized crafts, and inter-regional trade networks that supported growing settlements. Northern and central saw the rise of distinct pottery-bearing cultures, while southern expansions laid foundations for monumental architecture and social hierarchy. In northern , the (ca. 7000–6000 BCE) represented an early phase of , with small villages of 100–200 inhabitants featuring courtyard houses and early production. Hassuna pottery, often incised or lightly painted with simple geometric motifs, was produced in household contexts, reflecting nascent agricultural communities reliant on rain-fed farming of , , and . Key sites like Tell Hassuna yielded evidence of large tells—accumulated settlement mounds—indicating long-term occupation and the beginnings of craft activities such as grinding stone manufacture. These villages showed limited social differentiation, with burials suggesting egalitarian structures, though inter-regional exchange of and shells hinted at broader connections. Overlapping with Hassuna, the (ca. 6500–5500 BCE) flourished in northern and adjacent , known for its finely painted featuring elaborate polychrome geometric and zoomorphic designs on buff ware. Settlements like Arpachiyah and included circular tholoi tombs built of mud-brick or stone, often used for communal burials with such as beads and female figurines, pointing to ritual practices and emerging social elites. Halaf economy centered on and , with evidence of craft specialization in workshops that produced prestige items traded across the region, including to central . Stamp seals and amulets from sites like Sabi Abyad suggest administrative control over resources, fostering inter-community exchanges. In central , the (ca. 7000–6000 BCE) introduced innovations in water management, with evidence of planned canals at sites like Tell es-Sawwan, enabling intensified cultivation of crops such as and grains in the alluvial plains. Samarra pottery, characterized by geometric painted designs in black and red on a cream slip, was wheel-turned and mass-produced, indicating specialized workshops and organized labor. Villages featured T-shaped buildings for storage and ritual, alongside fortified structures with buttressed walls, reflecting into hierarchical kin groups capable of communal projects. Trade networks brought in materials like , , and , supporting craft production and suggesting economic interdependence with northern groups. The Ubaid culture (ca. 6200–3800 BCE), originating in the south and expanding northward, unified much of Mesopotamia under shared material traditions, with its painted pottery on a slow wheel becoming a hallmark of regional identity. By the late phases, irrigation along the Tigris and Euphrates supported larger towns like Eridu, where multi-level mud-brick temples served as precursors to urban religious centers, overseeing community labor and resources. Cylinder and stamp seals, depicting animals and geometric patterns, emerged as tools for marking ownership and administration, evidencing craft specialization in seal carving and token systems for accounting. Trade extended to the Persian Gulf for shells and fish, and inland for lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, imported as early as the Late Ubaid for elite ornaments and seals, highlighting inter-regional exchange networks. Social aspects included increasing hierarchy, with female figurines and differentiated burials indicating gender roles and status distinctions, alongside evidence of organized fishing and herding. Influences from Levantine nomadic pastoralism may have contributed to Ubaid herding practices, though southern sedentism dominated.

Anatolia

The Late Neolithic in , spanning approximately 7000–6000 BCE, represents the Pottery Neolithic phase and marks a period of cultural maturation following the , characterized by the widespread adoption of ceramics and intensified resource management. This era overlaps with the final stages of major settlements like , where occupation continued until around 6200 BCE, and exhibits continuity from earlier sites such as through evolving architectural and subsistence practices that bridged aceramic and ceramic traditions. Key innovations included the production of painted pottery, often featuring geometric and naturalistic motifs, which facilitated storage and exchange, alongside extensive trade networks centered on central Anatolian sources like , distributing tools and raw materials across the region. Prominent sites illustrate these developments, such as Hacılar in southwestern , occupied from circa 7000–6000 BCE, where fortified settlements with mud-brick walls enclosed clusters of rectangular houses, suggesting emerging and defense needs; traces of early processing hint at proto-metallurgical experiments. At Can Hasan in central , evidence from faunal remains indicates intensified , with increased proportions of domesticated sheep and goats alongside management, reflecting a shift toward more reliable pastoral economies to support growing populations. Cultural traits included the use of megaron-style houses—rectangular structures with central hearths and porticos—that emphasized communal living spaces, as seen in late phases at and Hacılar. Symbolic burials, often placed beneath house floors with like beads and , underscored beliefs in ancestral ties to domestic spaces, a practice continuous from Pre-Pottery contexts. Connections to the in northern occurred via northern Anatolian routes, facilitating the exchange of pottery styles and symbolic motifs through highland passes. Anatolia's central position enabled the export of Neolithic ideas and goods, including farming techniques, ceramics, and , to the via southern corridors and to through Aegean maritime and overland paths, influencing the adoption of sedentary in southeastern by around 6500 BCE. Influences from Mesopotamian , such as incised wares, appear in eastern Anatolian assemblages, underscoring broader Near Eastern interactions.

Spread to Europe

Southeastern Europe

The Late Neolithic in Southeastern Europe, spanning approximately 5000–4500 BCE, built upon earlier farming foundations with increased social complexity and technological advancements, evident in cultures like the late Vinča and the Gumelnița–Karanovo complex. These societies expanded across the Carpathian Basin and , refining agricultural practices with wheat, , and , while developing distinctive and early symbolic systems. Genetic studies indicate continuity from Anatolian farmer ancestry with local admixtures, supporting gradual cultural evolution rather than new migrations. The late (ca. 5000–4500 BCE), centered in and extending to and , is renowned for large proto-urban settlements like Vinča-Belo Brdo, covering up to 29 hectares and housing thousands, with multi-room houses and evidence of craft specialization in ceramics and figurines featuring intricate motifs. In the Lower region, the Gumelnița–Karanovo VI complex (ca. 4700–4000 BCE) featured tell settlements such as Karanovo, where layered villages revealed advanced mortuary practices, including flexed burials with , and decorated with spiral and designs. These communities practiced on fertile plains, supplemented by and , with emerging hierarchies suggested by differential grave furnishings. The in (c. 4600–4200 BCE) exemplifies peak , with over 3,000 artifacts in elite burials, including scepters and ornaments symbolizing , alongside evidence of interregional in metals and shells. Early metallurgy is apparent in artifacts and use from ca. 5000 BCE, transitioning toward by 4500 BCE. These developments reflect intensified networks across the Aegean and , fostering cultural hybridization and setting the stage for the .

Central and Northern Europe

In Central and Northern Europe, the Late Neolithic (ca. 4500–2500 BCE) involved the consolidation and northward expansion of farming societies from post-LBK foundations, adapting to diverse temperate landscapes through diverse cultural expressions. Transitional groups like the Rössen culture (ca. 4600–4300 BCE) in western Central Europe introduced palisaded enclosures, signaling growing defensiveness and resource management. The (ca. 4400–3500 BCE) dominated , particularly in the and regions, with hilltop settlements and large ditched enclosures up to 100 hectares, such as at , indicating communal labor and possible ceremonial functions. These sites featured undecorated pottery, polished stone tools, and economies reliant on for einkorn, , and , alongside cattle herding and . Pollen evidence shows continued and anthrosol formation, supporting population densities of 5–15 individuals per square kilometer. Further north, the (TRB, ca. 4300–2800 BCE) marked the Late Neolithic's reach into and , blending farming with traditions from the . Characterized by funnel-necked beakers and battle-axes, TRB communities constructed megalithic tombs—dolmens and passage graves—from ca. 4000 BCE, serving as collective burials for kin groups and ritual sites, as seen in Denmark's passage graves. Settlements included longhouses and pit enclosures for storage, with mixed subsistence emphasizing dairy production and wild resources in forested zones. Social tensions during this period are suggested by skeletal evidence of violence in enclosures and isolated incidents, potentially linked to resource competition amid climatic shifts like the 4.2 ka event. Craft specialization in and flint axes points to expanding , bridging Central and Northern regions.

Spread to Asia

South Asia

The Late Neolithic in , centered in the northwest regions including the Indus Valley and , occurred roughly from c. 5250 to 2600 BCE, according to recent 2025 radiocarbon studies revising earlier chronologies; this phase represents a period of intensified agricultural settlement and cultural elaboration that bridged early farming communities to the subsequent era. This period saw the consolidation of sedentary villages with advanced subsistence strategies, influenced by interactions across the and western networks. Key developments included the refinement of cultivation and , alongside emerging architectural and artisanal practices that hinted at growing . The primary site exemplifying Late Neolithic culture in South Asia is Mehrgarh, located in Balochistan, Pakistan, which flourished from approximately 5250 to 2600 BCE across multiple phases, with recent dating placing the aceramic early phase at 5250–4650 BCE and pottery-bearing levels thereafter. The site's early aceramic phase transitioned into pottery-bearing levels, featuring mud-brick villages with rectangular houses clustered around courtyards. Agricultural practices centered on barley and wheat farming, supplemented by the domestication of humped zebu cattle (Bos indicus), which provided milk, meat, and draft power essential for plowing fields. Evidence of () cultivation appears in mineralized fibers from this period, marking the earliest known use of the crop in the region for textiles. Architectural innovations included the production of baked bricks for durable structures and large granaries for storing surplus grain, indicating organized food management. Trade networks linked to distant regions, with artifacts such as beads sourced from and early stamp seals suggesting exchanges that extended toward . These connections facilitated the flow of semi-precious stones and possibly ideas, as seen in the adoption of sealing technologies. Cultural practices reflected increasing , evidenced by diverse customs ranging from simple pit graves to those with like ornaments and , implying differentiation. Terracotta female figurines, often depicting stylized figures with elaborate headdresses, likely symbolized or roles within the community. Additionally, dental remains from reveal early evidence of , including drilled molars treated with plant fibers, demonstrating advanced health practices among inhabitants. By around 2600 BCE, these traits at laid foundational elements for urban developments in the broader Indus region.

East Asia

The Late Neolithic in , particularly in , spanned approximately 5000–2000 BCE and featured independent cultural developments centered on river valleys, distinct from contemporaneous Near Eastern influences. This period is exemplified by the (c. 5000–3000 BCE) in the middle region, characterized by painted pottery, millet-based agriculture, and clustered villages, followed by the (c. 3000–2000 BCE), which saw advancements in black pottery, fortified settlements, and proto-urban centers. These cultures reflect internal intensification driven by agricultural surplus and , with limited evidence of external interactions beyond . Key sites illustrate these transitions. The site near in Province, a prominent Yangshao settlement dated to around 4800–3600 BCE, reveals a planned village layout with rectangular houses, storage pits, and evidence of communal organization, including possible matrilineal structures inferred from burial patterns. In the Longshan phase, the site in southern Province (c. 2300–1900 BCE) represents an early urban center with rammed-earth walls enclosing over 280 hectares, elite burials, and astronomical observatories, indicating centralized authority and ritual practices. Further south, the (c. 3300–2300 BCE) in the region featured sophisticated jade artifacts and , as seen in sites like Fanshan and Yaoshan, where ritual jades were buried or ritually burned. Agricultural developments underpinned societal growth, with millet (foxtail and broomcorn) domesticated in the basin by the early Neolithic and intensified during Yangshao and Longshan phases to support denser populations. cultivation, originating in the region around 9000 years ago, became prominent in southern Late Neolithic sites like Liangzhu, enabling systems that fostered settlement expansion. specialization advanced notably in working, where Liangzhu artisans produced cong tubes and bi discs from , often used in burials to signify and , reflecting beliefs in ancestral veneration. evolved from Yangshao's colorful, incised wares to Longshan's thin, black eggshell ceramics, achieved through high-temperature firing techniques evident at . Environmental challenges, such as flooding, prompted innovations like measures in the floodplain during the late Longshan period, with evidence of a major around 1920 BCE potentially influencing and . Hints of appear in Longshan marks and precursors, though these remain interpretive and tied to administrative needs in emerging centers. Overall, these developments highlight East Asia's parallel trajectory toward complexity, emphasizing ritual, , and localized adaptations.