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Main Central Thrust

The Main Central Thrust (MCT) is a prominent thrust fault system within the Himalayan orogen, primarily in Nepal and extending across the India-Nepal border, that juxtaposes the high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Greater Himalayan Crystalline complex in its hanging wall against the lower-grade sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence in its footwall, forming a critical boundary in the fold-thrust belt.^[1] This structure, characterized by a ductile shear zone transitioning to brittle faulting, exhibits a flat-on-flat geometry with top-to-the-south sense of shear and has been instrumental in the exhumation of mid-crustal rocks since the Early Miocene.^[1]^[2] The MCT represents a key element in the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalaya, driven by the ongoing collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates, where it accommodated significant crustal shortening and facilitated the southward propagation of deformation.^[3] Its activity evolved spatially and temporally, beginning as a deep-level ductile shear zone during the early to middle Miocene (approximately 23–11 million years ago) before propagating upward to become a shallower, brittle thrust fault, with no evidence of major reactivation in the late Miocene.^[3] In the hanging wall, Greater Himalayan rocks—comprising 5–20 km thick sequences of metasedimentary and metaigneous units—record peak metamorphic pressures of 8–10 kbar near the MCT, decreasing northward, indicative of mid-crustal burial and subsequent rapid uplift.^[1] Conversely, the footwall Lesser Himalayan rocks, up to 10 km thick and ranging from Proterozoic to Miocene in age, display inverted metamorphism from chlorite to garnet facies, reflecting heating during thrusting.^[1] Debates persist regarding the precise definition and position of the MCT, as it comprises a broad zone (hundreds of meters to kilometers thick) rather than a single discrete fault, with some interpretations linking it to associated structures like the Ramgarh Thrust in the middle Miocene.^[4] Geodynamically, the MCT's role in exhumation has been modeled through mechanisms such as critical taper wedge dynamics since the Early Miocene, potentially incorporating elements of channel flow beneath the Tibetan Plateau, though the latter's applicability remains contested.^[2] Overall, the MCT delineates a fundamental tectonic divide, influencing seismicity, landscape evolution, and resource distribution across the Himalayan arc.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Location

The Main Central Thrust (MCT) is a major crustal-scale ductile shear zone and south-vergent thrust fault that demarcates a fundamental tectonic boundary in the Himalayan orogen. It places the high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Greater Himalayan Sequence (GHS) in the hanging wall over the lower-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS) in the footwall, marking an abrupt transition in lithology, metamorphism, and structural style.^[5]^[6] This zone is characterized by intense ductile deformation and an inverted metamorphic gradient, with the highest grades adjacent to the thrust interface.^[5] Geographically, the MCT traces the length of the Himalayan arc, extending approximately 2,000 km from the western terminus near the Nanga Parbat syntaxis in northern Pakistan to the eastern end at the Namche Barwa syntaxis in Arunachal Pradesh, India, and eastern Tibet.^[7] It is prominently exposed in central and eastern Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and parts of northern India, where it forms a continuous, arcuate feature parallel to the range front.^[5]^[7] In terms of basic geometry, the MCT dips northward at moderate angles of 20–40 degrees and consists of a variably thick shear zone, typically 1–10 km wide, within which mylonitic fabrics and shear indicators predominate.^[8]^[9] This configuration reflects its role as a low-angle thrust accommodating significant displacement within the broader Himalayan thrust system.^[10]

Geological Significance

The Main Central Thrust (MCT) is a major thrust within the Himalayan tectonic framework, enabling the southward transport of the Greater Himalayan Sequence (GHS) over the underlying Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS) by an estimated 100–200 km since the Miocene. This displacement has been a key mechanism in the exhumation of mid-crustal rocks and the structural thickening of the orogenic wedge during the ongoing India-Asia collision. The MCT's activity, primarily during the early to middle Miocene, reflects the southward propagation of deformation from deeper levels of the lithosphere. In terms of seismotectonics, the MCT plays a critical role in strain partitioning across the Himalaya by distributing convergence between upper crustal thrusts and the basal detachment, thereby modulating seismic hazard along the range. It connects at depth to the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT), the primary underthrusting interface, allowing for coupled slip that influences rupture propagation on the plate boundary. This interaction has implications for major seismic events, including the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake (M_w 8.1), which involved rupture along segments of the MHT and contributed to the release of accumulated strain in the central Himalayan sector. On a broader scale, the MCT is integral to comprehending the dynamics of continental collision, where the India-Asia convergence has resulted in approximately 500 km of crustal shortening since the Eocene, with a significant portion accommodated through MCT-related thrusting and associated structures in the orogenic belt.

Geological Setting

Himalayan Orogeny

The Himalayan Orogeny represents the ongoing mountain-building event resulting from the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates, initiating approximately 50 million years ago (Ma) during the early Eocene. This convergence arose as the Indian plate, which had been moving northward at rates of 15-20 cm per year, collided with the southern margin of Eurasia following the closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. Initial contact likely occurred around 59 ± 1 Ma in the central-eastern sector, marking the onset of continental subduction where the leading edge of India was underthrust beneath Asia.^[11]^[12] The orogeny peaked during the Miocene epoch, characterized by widespread thrusting and deformation that accommodated the continued convergence, estimated at over 2,000 km of total shortening since collision. Key processes include ongoing continental subduction along the Main Himalayan Thrust, leading to pronounced crustal thickening; beneath the orogen, the crust has reached thicknesses of about 70 km in the Tethyan Himalaya, primarily through ductile flow and stacking of thrust sheets. Additionally, lateral extrusion of mid-crustal material has facilitated eastward and westward escape tectonics, alleviating internal stresses and contributing to the plateau's expansion. These mechanisms have driven surface uplift rates of 1-5 mm per year in the core of the range, shaping the modern topography.^[13]^[14]^[15] The Himalayan range is tectonically divided into four principal zones from south to north—Sub-Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya, Higher Himalaya, and Tibetan Himalaya—each formed through phased, southward-propagating thrusting that imbricated distinct lithospheric packages. The Sub-Himalaya consists of Neogene foreland basin sediments thrust over the Indo-Gangetic Plain; the Lesser Himalaya comprises Proterozoic to Paleozoic metasediments; the Higher Himalaya features high-grade gneisses and migmatites; and the Tibetan Himalaya preserves unmetamorphosed sedimentary sequences akin to those in the Indian craton. This zonation reflects episodic activation of major thrust systems, with deformation migrating southward over time to maintain the orogenic wedge's critical taper.^[16]^[17] The Main Central Thrust (MCT) occupies a central position within the Himalayan thrust belt, a south-vergent system of major faults that accommodate ongoing convergence between the Indian and Eurasian plates along a basal décollement known as the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT). This network includes the MCT as an intermediate structure, with the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) to the south and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) farther south, all rooting into the MHT at varying depths to form a coherent orogenic framework. To the north, the South Tibetan Detachment (STD) provides a contrasting extensional boundary, collectively delineating the MCT-flanked Greater Himalayan Sequence (GHS).^[18]^[19] The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) lies immediately south of the MCT, marking the southern margin of the Lesser Himalayan zone by placing Lesser Himalayan Sequence metasediments over Siwalik Group sediments derived from Himalayan erosion. As part of the thrust system's forward propagation, the MBT interacts with the MCT through out-of-sequence thrusting, where MBT motion contributes to folding of overlying structures including the MCT itself, and both faults converge southward into the MHT décollement at depths of approximately 10-20 km. This soling geometry facilitates the development of a Lesser Himalayan duplex, enhancing regional shortening while the MBT's age remains debated, with activity potentially spanning from older than 11 million years ago to less than 5 million years ago.^[19]^[18]^[19] Farther south, the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) represents the active southernmost expression of the Himalayan thrust belt, emplacing Neogene Siwalik strata over Quaternary deposits of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and defining the current deformation front. The MFT soles into the MHT at shallow depths of about 5-10 km, forming a frontal ramp that integrates the entire thrust system—including the MCT and MBT—into a unified basal décollement accommodating convergence at rates up to 21 ± 1.5 mm/year during the Holocene. This shallow connection underscores the MFT's role in ongoing seismicity and surface deformation, contrasting with the deeper integration of the MCT.^[19]^[18]^[19] North of the MCT, the South Tibetan Detachment (STD) serves as an extensional counterpart, a low-angle normal fault system that bounds the northern edge of the GHS by juxtaposing the Tethyan Himalayan Sequence over the Greater Himalayan Crystalline Complex. Unlike the compressional MCT, the STD facilitates northward extension and exhumation of the GHS, with its southern trace often merging with or lying within 1-2 km of the MCT up-dip, potentially linking at mid-crustal depths of 15-20 km while its ductile motion occurred between 23 and 18 million years ago. This structural opposition highlights the MCT's role in delimiting a compressional core within a broader extensional northern domain.^[19]^[18]

Characteristics

Structural Features

The Main Central Thrust (MCT) is a prominent ductile shear zone characterized by a heterogeneous composition that includes mylonites, augen gneisses, and protomylonites, reflecting intense deformation of both Greater Himalayan and Lesser Himalayan protoliths.^[20] These rock types exhibit well-developed internal fabrics, such as S-C structures, asymmetric foliation boudins, and stretching lineations, which consistently indicate a top-to-the-south sense of shear indicative of southward-directed tectonic transport.^[21] The shear zone's fabric elements, including sigma porphyroclasts and rotated feldspar grains, further underscore the dominance of non-coaxial strain during its development.^[20] Geometrically, the MCT zone varies significantly along strike, typically 2-3 km thick in central Nepal and up to 4-6 km in Bhutan, where it incorporates broader zones of distributed deformation.^[21]^[22] This variation is accompanied by structural complexities such as duplex structures within the footwall, which accommodate imbricate thrusting, and erosional klippen like the Kathmandu klippe, where Lesser Himalayan rocks are exposed through the overlying Greater Himalayan sequence.^[21] The overall geometry dips moderately north at 20-40 degrees, transitioning from ductile shearing at depth to more brittle features near the surface.^[20]^[23] Displacement along the MCT is estimated at more than 100 km cumulative slip, with the majority of strain concentrated within a narrow 2-4 km wide ductile core that localizes much of the orogenic shortening.^[24] This focused strain zone marks a sharp transition in metamorphic grade, with higher-grade Greater Himalayan rocks in the hanging wall juxtaposed against lower-grade Lesser Himalayan equivalents in the footwall.^[20]

Metamorphic and Lithological Aspects

The hanging wall of the Main Central Thrust, corresponding to the Greater Himalayan Sequence (GHS), is dominated by high-grade metamorphic rocks including orthogneisses, migmatites, and leucogranites. These lithologies reflect intense deformation and metamorphism during the Himalayan orogeny, with paragneisses and orthogneisses forming the predominant units derived from Proterozoic protoliths.^[25]^[26] Barrovian-type metamorphism in the GHS hanging wall progressed through amphibolite to granulite facies, with peak conditions varying along strike, reaching 700–820°C and 8–13 kbar in eastern segments (e.g., Arun Valley), indicating burial depths of 25–40 km.^[27] This metamorphism involved prograde reactions producing assemblages with garnet, kyanite, sillimanite, and biotite, often overprinted by retrograde cooling during exhumation. Recent analyses indicate ultra-high-temperature overprinting (up to 930°C) in mafic granulites within the GHS in the Arun Valley (as of 2025).^[28] In some eastern Nepal exposures, such as the Arun Valley, the highest structural levels record ultra-high-temperature events near 820°C at 13 kbar, transitioning to decompression at ~805°C and 10 kbar.^[29]^[27] The footwall, part of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS), consists primarily of low-grade metasedimentary rocks such as quartzites, phyllites, and graphitic schists, with protoliths including Neoproterozoic to Paleozoic carbonates and clastics. Metamorphic grades here are typically greenschist to lower amphibolite facies, with peak temperatures around 500–550°C and pressures of 0.65–0.85 GPa, showing a marked contrast to the hanging wall. An inverted metamorphic field gradient characterizes the MCT zone, wherein grade increases structurally northward across the fault, from anchizonal conditions southward to amphibolite facies immediately below the thrust.^[25]^[29]^[26] Partial melting (anatexis) is prominent within the MCT shear zone, particularly at its higher structural levels, generating synkinematic leucosomes through dehydration reactions in kyanite-bearing orthogneisses. These melts crystallized in situ as migmatitic segregations during early Oligocene time (~31 Ma), predating widespread Miocene thrusting, and contributed to the formation of leucogranites in the GHS. Fluids facilitated strain localization by enhancing reaction softening and melt migration, with evidence from fluid-fluxed melting episodes promoting hydrous phases and shear zone weakening.^[27]^[30]

Kinematic Evolution

Formation Models

The formation of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) is explained through several theoretical models that integrate structural, geochronological, and geophysical data from the Himalayan orogen. These models address how the MCT, a major ductile-to-brittle thrust fault, developed in response to the ongoing India-Asia collision, focusing on the mechanics of crustal shortening, exhumation, and wedge dynamics. Key models include the critical taper wedge and channel flow frameworks, each emphasizing different drivers of MCT emplacement during the Miocene.^[31] In the critical taper wedge model, the MCT forms as part of a southward-propagating thrust system within a self-sustaining orogenic wedge that maintains a critical taper angle, balancing internal frictional strength, cohesion, and surface slope against basal décollement properties. This framework posits that the Himalayan thrust belt, including the MCT, evolves through sequential activation of thrusts from north to south, with the MCT representing a mid-crustal ramp that accommodates ~100-150 km of shortening since its initiation. The model integrates erosion and sedimentation as key factors in sustaining the wedge's stability, with the MCT's development tied to post-collisional thickening after ~22 Ma, when the wedge reached a critical state following earlier Eocene-Oligocene deformation. Numerical and balanced cross-section analyses support this, showing the MCT as a roof thrust facilitating the extrusion of the Greater Himalayan Sequence while preserving the overall taper of ~5-10 degrees.^[32]^[33] The channel flow model describes the MCT as the southern boundary of a ductile mid-crustal channel, where partially molten Greater Himalayan rocks extrude southward between the MCT and the overlying South Tibetan Detachment (STD). Driven by viscous flow under elevated pressure gradients from crustal overthickening and focused erosion, this process facilitates rapid exhumation rates of 5-10 mm/yr, with the MCT acting as a backstop to channelized return flow from beneath the Tibetan Plateau. Thermobarometric and geochronological data indicate peak channel activity between 25-15 Ma, linking MCT strain localization to syn-tectonic partial melting and rheological weakening in the mid-crust. This model contrasts with purely mechanical thrusting by emphasizing buoyancy and viscous instabilities, supported by petrological evidence of inverted metamorphism across the MCT zone.^[34]^[31]

Deformation Mechanisms

The deformation mechanisms along the Main Central Thrust (MCT) are dominated by ductile shearing characterized by top-to-the-south simple shear kinematics, as evidenced by consistent shear sense indicators such as S-C fabrics and asymmetric porphyroclasts in mylonitic rocks.^[35] This process primarily involves dislocation creep, where intracrystalline slip on specific planes like prismatic and pyramidal systems in quartz accommodates strain, coupled with dynamic recrystallization through subgrain rotation and limited grain boundary migration to facilitate recovery.^[36] Paleopiezometric estimates from recrystallized quartz grain sizes indicate strain rates on the order of $10^{-13} \, \mathrm{s}^{-1} during peak ductile flow, reflecting mid-crustal conditions under greenschist to amphibolite facies.^[37] Strain partitioning within the MCT zone results in heterogeneous deformation, with intense localization confined to anastomosing shear bands that form interconnected networks up to several kilometers wide, promoting efficient strain accumulation while preserving less deformed lenses between bands.^[38] This partitioning transitions upward from ductile-dominated flow in the deeper portions to brittle failure near the surface, occurring at approximately 10 km depth where temperatures drop below ~300–350°C, marking the base of the seismogenic zone and allowing cataclastic deformation to overprint earlier mylonites.^[39] The MCT's activity peaked during the early to middle Miocene (20–15 Ma), when ductile thrusting accommodated convergence at rates of 5–10 mm/yr, as constrained by the offset of pre-tectonic markers and balanced cross-sections.^[40] Post-Miocene slip slowed to less than 1 mm/yr, reflecting a shift to distributed deformation across the orogen, with evidence from ^{40}\mathrm{Ar}/^{39}\mathrm{Ar} cooling ages on muscovite that record rapid exhumation during the main phase followed by protracted cooling.^[41] Geodetic data as of 2025 indicate negligible slip on the MCT itself, with deformation now primarily accommodated on frontal thrusts like the Main Frontal Thrust at rates of ~15–20 mm/yr, reflecting continued southward propagation of the thrust system.^[42] These rates highlight the MCT's role in channeling early collisional strain before partitioning onto younger structures.^[43]

Definitions and Debates

Historical Perspectives

The Main Central Thrust (MCT) was initially recognized during 19th-century geological surveys of the Indian Himalaya as a prominent lithological boundary separating the crystalline rocks of the Higher Himalaya from the unmetamorphosed to low-grade sedimentary rocks of the Lesser Himalaya. This boundary, often marked by sharp contrasts in rock types such as gneisses and schists overlying slates and quartzites, was mapped in regions like Jaunsar, where it appeared as a transitional zone between the inner metamorphic core and outer sedimentary belts. Early observers, including Richard D. Oldham, highlighted the unusual inverted metamorphic gradient across this contact, with higher-grade metamorphism in the hanging wall despite structural superposition, though without attributing it to specific tectonic processes. In the mid-20th century, the MCT received more precise structural definitions through detailed fieldwork in the Garhwal region. J.B. Auden (1937) described it as a major south-vergent thrust plane that juxtaposes less metamorphosed shales, phyllites, limestones, and quartzites against overlying paragneisses, schists, and granulites intruded by gneissic granites, emphasizing its role in the tectonic architecture of the central Himalaya.^[44] This marked a shift from purely lithological interpretations to recognizing the feature as a fault with significant horizontal displacement, potentially on the order of tens of kilometers.^[44] Arnold Heim and August Gansser further refined this understanding in their 1939 expedition report, formally naming the structure the Main Central Thrust and defining it as the principal plane separating the high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Great Himalaya from the low-grade domain of the Lesser Himalaya.^[21] They portrayed it as a low-angle thrust facilitating the southward advance of crystalline nappes over sedimentary sequences, building on Auden's observations while integrating regional mapping to underscore its orogen-scale continuity.^[21] By the 1970s, Pierre Le Fort advanced these ideas by emphasizing the MCT's association with metamorphic inversion, interpreting the structure as a zone where shear heating and tectonic thickening produced the observed gradient of increasing grade southward toward the thrust. Le Fort's synthesis highlighted the MCT as the basal contact of the High Himalayan Crystalline complex, inverting isograds through Miocene deformation, though early views up to the 1970s generally treated it as a relatively simple fault defined by rock-type contrasts rather than detailed kinematic mechanisms. Prior to the 1980s, interpretations lacked emphasis on polyphase ductile shearing or progressive exhumation, focusing instead on static lithological and metamorphic markers.^[21]

Modern Controversies

One ongoing debate in the study of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) concerns its multiplicity, with evidence suggesting it comprises at least two distinct components in various Himalayan segments, including the Garhwal region. In this area, MCT1, also known as the Munsiari Thrust, represents the lower boundary dominated by protolith rocks with medium-grade metamorphism such as gneiss, schist, and quartzite exhibiting high dip angles, while MCT2, or the Vaikrita Thrust, forms the upper mylonitic zone characterized by intensely deformed mylonitized schists.^[45] This subdivision supports interpretations of the MCT as a duplex system rather than a single thrust, where minor duplexes like the Bhagirathi, Bhilangana, and Mandakini exhibit significant contraction (up to -138%) through repeated cyclic straining during thrust sheet emplacement.^[46]^[47] Proponents of the duplex model argue that it resolves stratigraphic inconsistencies across the India-Nepal border, with the discovery of the Pabbar Thrust—a top-to-southwest shear zone—further indicating discrete accretion of thrust horses since the mid-Miocene, contrasting with simpler single-thrust extrusion models.^[47] Definitional criteria for the MCT remain contentious, leading to substantial lateral inconsistencies in its mapped position. Lithologic definitions place the MCT at the contact between the Greater Himalayan Sequence (GHS) and Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS), emphasizing stratigraphic boundaries like quartzite-phyllite transitions.^[21] Structural criteria, however, identify it as the base of a 2-3 km thick ductile shear zone (bounded by MCT1 below and MCT2 above), prioritizing high-strain mylonitic fabrics.^[21] Metamorphic approaches align it with isograds, such as the kyanite zone, which can shift 1-3 km structurally upward relative to other markers due to inverted gradients.^[21] These conflicting standards result in 10-50 km lateral variations along strike, complicating correlations and underscoring the need for strain-based mapping to resolve ambiguities.^[21] Disputes over the MCT's subsurface geometry persist, particularly between flat-ramp-flat and listric profiles, informed by recent seismic and thermokinematic data from central Nepal. Traditional flat-ramp-flat models posit a mid-crustal ramp dipping ~26° north, located ~110 km north of the Main Frontal Thrust, facilitating duplex growth and southward migration of thrust sheets at 10-42 mm/yr.^[48] Listric interpretations suggest a more concave-upward curvature, potentially with southern ramps ~50 km from the front, as proposed in hinterland-dipping duplex scenarios.^[48] Seismic reflections from 2020 studies, including thermochronologic modeling of apatite and zircon ages, indicate southward steps in the ramp position—such as offsets of 12-90 km—potentially segmenting rupture propagation and influencing seismicity patterns.^[48] These findings challenge uniform listric models by supporting segmented flat-ramp structures that better match observed cooling ages and exhumation rates.^[48]

Research Prospects

Recent Advances

Recent geophysical imaging studies have significantly refined the understanding of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and its relationship to the underlying Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) in central Nepal. Thermokinematic modeling integrated with seismic data, including inversions from the 2015 Gorkha earthquake acquired post-2015, reveal a complex geometry, including lateral variations in the MHT characterized by steps or ramps on the order of approximately 30 km along strike, which influence rupture propagation during earthquakes. These models indicate that convergence along the MHT occurs at depths of 10-15 km beneath the MCT zone, highlighting a mid-crustal ramp that facilitates out-of-sequence thrusting and accommodates ongoing deformation.^[49] Geochronological studies using in-situ monazite U-Th-Pb dating techniques have provided constraints on the timing of MCT activation. These studies indicate that the MCT initiated around 21–14 Ma in central Nepal and Sikkim, marking the onset of significant ductile thrusting during the early Miocene.^[50] Integration of these dates with modern GPS measurements further indicates that current interseismic slip rates along the MCT and upper MHT are less than 2 mm/yr in shallow crustal sections, with most convergence (around 15-20 mm/yr total) occurring aseismically at depth due to locking on the basal detachment.^[51] A 2025 geodetic study using improved GNSS observations suggests 500–700 years of strain accumulation along the central Himalayan megathrust since the 1505 and 1344 historical events, indicating higher convergence rates and wider locking widths that refine models of MCT-related seismicity.^[52] Field investigations in the Sikkim Himalaya, particularly a 2022 study, have documented tectonic interleaving processes along the MCT through detailed mapping and balanced cross-sections. These cross-sections illustrate the incorporation of Lower Himalayan Sequence (LHS) slices into the Greater Himalayan Sequence (GHS) via imbricate thrusting, with minimum shortening estimates of 403-450 km across the MCT, LHS, and associated structures. Such interleaving underscores the role of the MCT in partitioning convergence and facilitating exhumation of mid-crustal rocks during ongoing Himalayan orogenesis.^[53]

Future Directions

Despite advances in geophysical imaging, the precise three-dimensional geometry of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) remains unresolved in its eastern sectors, where it transitions into a broad ductile shear zone spanning several kilometers rather than a discrete fault plane.^[54] This ambiguity complicates models of strain partitioning and rupture propagation along the Himalayan arc.^[55] Similarly, integrating paleoseismological records to evaluate the MCT's seismic potential requires extending analyses beyond the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake, as current data highlight segmentation along the Main Himalayan Thrust system but lack comprehensive millennial-scale chronologies for recurrent great events in the central seismic gap.^[56]^[57] Future research should prioritize high-resolution thermochronology to refine exhumation histories and fault kinematics across the MCT, building on integrated modeling that constrains ramp-flat geometries in central Nepal.^[58] Complementary InSAR observations can map interseismic strain rates more accurately, revealing elevated deformation along the MCT that informs coupling variations on the underlying Main Himalayan Thrust.^[59]^[60] Additionally, targeted drilling projects, such as extensions of International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP) initiatives in collisional orogens, offer opportunities to directly sample the MCT shear zone for mylonitic fabrics and fluid inclusions, enabling petrophysical calibration of seismic models. These investigations hold implications for enhanced seismic hazard assessment affecting approximately 20 million residents in MCT-proximal regions of Nepal and India, where refined rupture forecasts could mitigate risks from potential M>8 events in the central gap.^[61] Furthermore, linking MCT dynamics to erosion rates through coupled tectonic-climate models may elucidate feedbacks influencing Himalayan topography over glacial-interglacial cycles.^[62] Recent seismic data underscore the need for such multidisciplinary approaches to resolve these frontiers.^[63]

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P–T evolution and age of the Barrovian metamorphism in the MCT Zone of the Arun Valley, E Nepal ... Deformation and metamorphism within the Main Central Thrust ...
[27]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2010.05.003
[28]
Fluid-fluxed melting in the Himalayan orogenic belt
Jul 10, 2023 · ... Main Central Thrust (MCT), and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), respectively (Fig. 1A). The Cona region, located in the eastern Himalayan ...
[29]
Channel flow and the Himalayan–Tibetan orogen: a critical review
Nov 22, 2017 · Decoupling zones of in situ melting from the channel boundaries allows the Main Central Thrust to be generally equated with the 'model Main ...
[30]
Forward modeling the kinematic sequence of the central Himalayan ...
Oct 1, 2008 · This study treats the Main Central thrust sheet and the crystalline rocks in the klippe (Dadeldhura klippen and Kathmandu klippe) as riding on ...
[31]
[PDF] Himalayan-Tibetan Orogeny: Channel Flow versus (Critical) Wedge ...
In the second, (Critical) Wedge class of models, the Himalaya is interpreted to have evolved as a wedge (Kohn, 2008) which may / may not be critical (Dahlen, ...
[32]
Crustal channel flows: 2. Numerical models with implications for ...
Jun 25, 2004 · In particular, channel flow models provide an internally consistent explanation for coeval north-south shortening on the Main Central Thrust ( ...
[33]
The age and rate of displacement along the Main Central Thrust in ...
The age of MCT displacement in western Bhutan is constrained between 20 and 15 Ma. The age and rate of MCT displacement varies across the Bhutan Himalaya.
[34]
Geochronologic and thermobarometric constraints on the evolution ...
Aug 10, 2001 · The Main Central Thrust (MCT) juxtaposes the high-grade Greater Himalayan Crystallines over the lower-grade Lesser Himalaya Formation; ...
[35]
Kinematics of the Greater Himalayan sequence, Dhaulagiri Himal
Jan 1, 2009 · ... top-to-the-south sense Main Central thrust fault (Fig. 1b) ... top-to-the-south ductile shearing at temperatures of c. 500 °C ...
[36]
Evidence of Dislocation Mixed Climb in Quartz From the Main Central and Moine Thrusts: An Electron Tomography Study
### Summary of Dislocation Creep and Dynamic Recrystallization in MCT Quartz
[37]
[PDF] Piezometry and Strain Rate Estimates Along Mid-Crustal Shear Zones
Apr 20, 2012 · (Main Central Thrust – MCT) and upper (South ... Over 5 Myr, these shear strains produce strain rates ranging from 3.17 x 10-13 s-1 to 2.74.
[38]
Structure and development of an anastomosing network of ductile ...
Aug 7, 2025 · ... Main Central thrust (MCT) and the Pelling-Munsiari thrust (PT) ... The interconnection of anastomosing shear bands and passive rotation ...
[39]
Crustal architecture of the Himalayan metamorphic front in eastern ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... ductile to brittle transition. The pressure difference between ... 10-30 km structurally above the Main Central Thrust. Frictional ...
[40]
The age and rate of displacement along the Main Central Thrust in ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Our study highlights that displacement on the MCT alone achieved plate velocity rates in western Bhutan, and that the age and rate of MCT displacement varied ...
[41]
Pulsed deformation and variable slip rates within the central ...
Oct 1, 2012 · In far western Nepal, 40Ar/39Ar cooling ages on muscovite suggest that the Main Central thrust was active at ca. 25–21 Ma (Fig. 2; DeCelles et ...Siwalik Group · Middle Siwalik Unit · Model Assumptions And...
[42]
[PDF] PDF - Geological Society of America
(1992) detected two major periods of move- ment of the Main Central thrust as a duplex structure: an early, ductile phase at 20-15 Ma, and a late, brittle phase.
[43]
None
### Summary of Main Central Thrust and Major Thrusts in the Himalaya (Garhwal)
[44]
Deep learning and benchmark machine learning based landslide ...
Here, the MCT (Main Central Thrust) separates the Greater Himalaya (high to medium grade rock of the central crystalline formation) from Lesser Himalaya.Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[45]
Tectonics of the Main Central Thrust in Garhwal Himalaya, U.P
Feb 1, 1988 · The Main Central Thrust in Garhwal Himalaya is characterized by a duplex system. The relationship between the minor duplexes with the major ...Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[46]
Extrusion vs. duplexing models of Himalayan mountain building 1 ...
Jan 8, 2015 · Our results reveal a new shear zone, termed the Pabbar thrust Duplexing processes dominate the Himalayan mountain building.Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[47]
Constraining Central Himalayan (Nepal) Fault Geometry Through ...
Aug 12, 2020 · The mid-crustal ramp of the Main Himalayan thrust, located ~110 km north of the Main Frontal thrust, best reproduces measured cooling ages ...
[48]
Assessing the geometry of the Main Himalayan thrust in central Nepal
May 14, 2024 · The MFT ramp is proposed to dip at an angle of ~30°N, with an approximate depth of 5 km. This depth and dip are consistent with mapped upper ...Missing: degrees | Show results with:degrees
[49]
Interseismic coupling on the main Himalayan thrust - AGU Journals
Jul 14, 2015 · We determine the slip rate and pattern of interseismic coupling on the Main Himalayan Thrust along the entire Himalayan arc based on a compilation of geodetic, ...
[50]
Penetrative Strain and Partitioning of Convergence‐Related ...
Oct 13, 2022 · Based on two regional balanced cross-sections, ∼403–450 km of shortening (MCT + LHS + SHS) is reported from a series of folded thrust systems ( ...
[51]
Estimation of surface deformation in Sikkim and Eastern Nepal ...
In this region, the MCT is not clearly demarcated but manifests as a ductile deformation zone of several kilometers wide, recognized as the Main Central Thrust ...
[52]
The nature and evolution of the Main Central Thrust: Structural and ...
The Main Central Thrust (MCT) is a prominent continental-scale fault within the Himalaya. Its definition has been the topic of some debate in the literature ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Paleoseismological evidence for segmentation of the Main ... - Nature
Jun 24, 2024 · Previous paleoseismological studies in the Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya (DSH) suggested medieval surface-rupturing earthquakes, correlating them ...
[54]
Earthquake rupture variability along the central seismic gap ...
Jul 1, 2025 · This study aims to improve the understanding of rupture extents and behavior along the ~ 650 km Central Seismic Gap (CSG) segment by analyzing paleoseismic ...
[55]
Constraining central Himalayan (Nepal) fault geometry through ...
Aug 31, 2020 · Constraining central Himalayan (Nepal) fault geometry through integrated thermochronology and thermokinematic modeling. Tectonics. By: Surydoy ...Missing: high- resolution InSAR ICDP
[56]
High-resolution velocity and strain rate fields in the Kumaun Himalaya
The geodetic strain rate is not uniform across the study region and the higher strain rates are observed along the Main Central Thrust.
[57]
Interseismic strain rate and fault coupling along the central ...
Jun 25, 2025 · Some of the main geological features include: MFT—Main Frontal Thrust, MBT—Main Boundary Thrust, MCT—Main Central Thrust, MCT-I/Munsiari ...
[58]
The status of central seismic gap: A perspective based on the spatial ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... A. Map showing tectonic domains and major thrusts of the Himalaya: (MCT: Main Central Thrust, MBT: Main Boundary Thrust and ...
[59]
Testing erosional and kinematic drivers of exhumation in the central ...
May 1, 2023 · This study investigates the influence of fault geometry, kinematics, and displacement on the exhumation history of the central Himalaya ...
[60]
The Main Himalayan Thrust Beneath Nepal and Southern Tibet ...
Jun 13, 2023 · This study further constrains crustal discontinuities beneath Nepal including the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) using teleseismic P-wave coda autocorrelation.