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Marmaray

Marmaray is a 76.6-kilometre-long commuter rail network in Istanbul, Turkey, that connects the city's European and Asian sides by linking Halkalı in the west to Gebze in the east via a 13.6-kilometre undersea tunnel beneath the Bosphorus Strait.^[1]^[2] The system comprises 43 stations, facilitates high-capacity urban and suburban transport with electric multiple-unit trains, and integrates with Istanbul's broader public transit network, including metro lines, trams, and metrobuses.^[3]^[4] The project originated from a 1999 funding agreement between Turkey and Japan, with construction beginning in 2004 under the Turkish State Railways (TCDD) and international partners, aiming to alleviate traffic congestion across the Bosphorus.^[2] Delays due to significant archaeological discoveries, including Byzantine-era artifacts unearthed during tunnel boring, postponed the initial opening from 2009 until October 29, 2013, coinciding with the 90th anniversary of the Turkish Republic.^[2] The full line, including extensions, became operational in March 2019, incorporating upgraded suburban tracks and new infrastructure to support mixed commuter, intercity, and freight services.^[2] Operationally, Marmaray trains run on double tracks with frequencies of 5 to 10 minutes during peak hours on the core section from Ataköy to Pendik, extending to 15-minute intervals for the full Halkalı-Gebze route, operating daily from 6:00 a.m. to midnight on weekdays and until 1:30 a.m. on weekends.^[3]^[4] The fleet consists of 440 rail cars manufactured by Hyundai Rotem, configured in 5- or 10-car sets capable of speeds up to 105 km/h, with the entire end-to-end journey taking approximately 108 minutes, including a 4-minute Bosphorus crossing at depths up to 60 meters below sea level.^[2]^[4] Fares are distance-based, starting from standard Istanbul public transport rates and requiring an Istanbulkart for access, with options for full, student, and discounted tickets.^[3]^[4] As a cornerstone of Istanbul's transportation infrastructure, Marmaray has significantly reduced cross-continental travel times from hours by road or ferry to under two hours by rail, with a designed capacity of up to 1.7 million passengers daily; as of 2025, it carries an average of about 600,000 passengers per day.^[2]^[5] The line not only enhances urban mobility in a metropolis of over 15 million residents but also forms part of Turkey's national rail corridor, linking to high-speed and regional services for broader connectivity.^[2]^[3]

Project Background

Historical Context

Istanbul's transportation infrastructure during the Ottoman era relied heavily on maritime services to cross the Bosphorus Strait, with ferries serving as the primary means of connecting the European and Asian sides of the city. The Şirket-i Hayriye, established in 1851 as the Ottoman Empire's first joint-stock company, operated steam ferries that revolutionized passenger transport, replacing traditional rowboats and sailboats for both locals and goods.^[6] Rail development began in the mid-19th century, with the first lines constructed under foreign concessions; by the late 1800s, the network expanded significantly, including the Istanbul-Haydarpasa line on the Asian side completed in 1872 and the Sirkeci Station on the European side opening in 1890 as a hub for international routes like the Orient Express.^[7] Into the 20th century, under the Republic of Turkey, rail lines grew to support suburban commuter services, but the absence of a direct Bosphorus crossing meant reliance on ferries, leading to chronic delays and capacity issues as urbanization accelerated.^[8] The first road bridge, the Boğaziçi Bridge, opened in 1973, followed by the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge in 1988, shifting some traffic from ferries to vehicles but exacerbating congestion without integrating rail systems.^[9] Proposals for a rail tunnel under the Bosphorus emerged as early as 1860, when Sultan Abdülmecid I commissioned French engineer S. Preault to design an underwater steel tunnel linking the Anatolian and Rumelian railways, though technological limitations prevented realization.^[10] In 1902, during Sultan Abdul Hamid II's reign, American engineers proposed the "Tünel-i Bahri" metro project, envisioning a submerged tube with passenger cars, but it too remained unbuilt due to financial and engineering challenges.^[10] Modern concepts gained traction in the 1980s and 1990s amid Istanbul's rapid population growth from 1.46 million in 1960 to 8.26 million by 1997, overwhelming ferries—which carried up to 500,000 passengers daily—and the two road bridges with severe traffic bottlenecks.^[11] Feasibility studies in 1987 and subsequent planning emphasized a rail link to alleviate urban congestion and integrate the fragmented suburban rail networks on both continents.^[12] The 1999 İzmit earthquake, a magnitude 7.4 event centered 80 kilometers southeast of Istanbul, underscored the vulnerability of the city's transport infrastructure to seismic risks, damaging highways, railways, and ports while causing widespread liquefaction in coastal areas.^[13] This disaster, which killed over 17,000 people and disrupted cross-continental mobility, highlighted the need for a resilient, earthquake-resistant rail crossing to ensure continuity of essential services in a seismically active region prone to future quakes along the North Anatolian Fault.^[14] The event accelerated international funding commitments for such projects, emphasizing designs capable of withstanding magnitudes up to 9.0.^[13]

Planning and Objectives

The Marmaray project was formally initiated by the Turkish government in 2000 under the 57th administration, marking the first serious step toward realizing a rail connection across the Bosphorus Strait through a signed consultancy agreement for detailed planning.^[15] This announcement addressed longstanding urban transport challenges in Istanbul, where rapid population growth and limited crossing options had exacerbated daily commutes.^[16] The primary objectives included alleviating severe traffic congestion on existing bridges and ferries, reducing air pollution from increased vehicle usage, and decreasing dependence on ferry services that were vulnerable to weather disruptions.^[17]^[18] Between 2000 and 2004, comprehensive feasibility studies were conducted to assess the project's technical, environmental, and economic viability, building on earlier conceptual work from the 1980s.^[16] These studies involved significant international collaboration, notably with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), which provided expertise in rail infrastructure and preliminary assessments as part of its official development assistance, and the European Investment Bank (EIB), which contributed to early financing evaluations and risk analysis starting from 1999.^[19]^[20] The efforts confirmed the project's potential to modernize Istanbul's transport network while incorporating seismic safety measures given the region's earthquake-prone nature. Central to the project's goals was the seamless connection of European and Asian rail lines via an underwater tunnel, creating a continuous suburban rail corridor from Halkalı to Gebze.^[2] Designed to handle a peak capacity of 75,000 passengers per hour per direction, Marmaray aimed to shift commuters from roads to rail, thereby easing pressure on the city's overburdened infrastructure.^[20] Additionally, the system was planned for integration with existing and future metro lines, such as those at Yenikapı and Üsküdar, to form a unified public transport hub that enhances accessibility across Istanbul's divided continents.^[11]

Construction

First Phase

Construction of the Marmaray project's first phase began in May 2004, following the award of the primary contract to a Japanese-Turkish consortium comprising Taisei Corporation and Kumagai Gumi from Japan, along with Gama Endüstri Tesisleri İmalat ve Montaj Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. and Nurol İnşaat ve Ticaret A.Ş. from Turkey.^[2]^[21] This phase focused on building the core 13.6 km underground rail connection between Ayrılık Çeşmesi on the Asian side and Yedikule on the European side, designed to link Istanbul's existing suburban rail lines across the Bosphorus Strait while integrating with the city's metro system to alleviate chronic traffic congestion.^[2]^[22] The tunnel system consisted of a 1.4 km immersed tube section beneath the Bosphorus, 9.8 km of twin bored tunnels, and 2.4 km of cut-and-cover sections, all engineered as a double-track railway capable of withstanding seismic activity near the North Anatolian Fault.^[2]^[21] The immersed tube was constructed from 11 precast concrete segments, each up to 130 m long and weighing 18,000 tons, which were fabricated onshore, towed into position, and submerged to a depth of 60 m below sea level using precise ballasting and hydraulic controls to ensure watertight seals with rubber gaskets.^[21] Bored tunnels were excavated using slurry tunnel boring machines (TBMs) with a 7.64 m diameter from both shores, while cut-and-cover methods were applied in urban areas for station approaches, requiring extensive geotechnical stabilization to handle Istanbul's variable soil conditions including soft marine clays and alluvial deposits.^[2]^[21] Significant engineering challenges arose during underwater assembly, where strong currents and the strait’s 55 m water depth demanded millimeter-level accuracy in segment placement to avoid misalignment, compounded by the need for earthquake-resistant flexible joints allowing up to 2 m of lateral movement.^[21] The immersed tube and connecting bored tunnels were structurally completed on September 23, 2008, marked by a formal ceremony on October 13, but overall progress halted for archaeological excavations starting in 2005 at sites like Yenikapı, uncovering Byzantine-era artifacts including the ancient Port of Theodosius, which delayed the phase's integration and testing until 2013.^[22]^[2]^[21]

Second Phase

The second phase of the Marmaray project focused on upgrading and modernizing approximately 63 km of existing suburban rail lines on both the European and Asian sides of Istanbul, extending from Halkalı to Gebze, to integrate seamlessly with the initial underwater tunnel segment completed in 2013.^[2]^[23] This phase involved comprehensive electrification of the tracks to support higher-speed and more efficient operations, installation of advanced signaling systems including CBTC (Communications-Based Train Control) and ERTMS Level 1 for enhanced safety and capacity on mixed-traffic corridors accommodating commuter, intercity, and high-speed trains, and extensive station renovations to meet modern standards.^[24]^[25]^[26] Key upgrades included the addition of a third track along much of the route to increase capacity, construction or refurbishment of stations such as those at Bakırköy, Maltepe, and Pendik, and the implementation of new power supply infrastructure to enable 25 kV electrification compatible with regional rail networks.^[2]^[27] These enhancements transformed the legacy lines into a high-capacity urban rail system, allowing for up to 75,000 passengers per hour per direction while supporting freight and intercity services.^[28] Integration with Istanbul's broader metro network was a critical component, achieved through multimodal transfer facilities at key interchanges like Yenikapı, where Marmaray connects with M1A, M1B, and M2 metro lines, and Söğütlüçeşme, linking to the M4 line, facilitating seamless passenger movement across the city's transit ecosystem.^[29]^[30] The phase was completed and inaugurated on March 12, 2019, by Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, resulting in a fully operational 76.6 km line from Halkalı to Gebze with 43 stations, marking the realization of a continuous rail corridor across the Bosphorus. As of 2025, extensions such as the Halkalı-Ispartakule section are under construction to further integrate with regional networks.^[31]^[26]^[32]^[33]

Archaeological Discoveries

During the Marmaray project, archaeological excavations at the Yenikapı site commenced in 2004 as part of preparations for the rail hub, uncovering significant remains from Istanbul's ancient past.^[34] These digs revealed the long-lost Harbor of Theodosius (also known as Eleutherios or Portus Theodosiacus), a major Byzantine port constructed around 395 AD, approximately 1,500 years old at the time of discovery.^[35] The harbor, originally built on a natural bay that later silted up due to alluvial deposits from nearby streams, served as Constantinople's primary maritime gateway and provided crucial insights into late Roman and early Byzantine trade and urban development.^[36] Among the most notable finds were 37 Byzantine shipwrecks, dating from the 5th to the 11th centuries AD, representing the largest collection of medieval vessels ever excavated in a single location.^[37] These well-preserved hulls, along with associated artifacts such as pottery, tools, leather goods, and organic remains, offered unprecedented evidence of ancient shipbuilding techniques, cargo transport, and daily life in the Byzantine Empire.^[38] The discoveries extended even further back in time, with prehistoric layers yielding artifacts from the Neolithic era around 8,000 years ago, including stone tools, ceramics, hut foundations, over 1,500 human footprints preserved in clay, and evidence of early settlements linked to the Fikirtepe culture.^[35]^[39] These Neolithic remains, the earliest known on Istanbul's historic peninsula, indicated that the area was once a lakeside habitat when the Sea of Marmara was a freshwater body, reshaping understandings of the region's prehistory.^[40]^[41] The extensive excavations, spanning from 2004 to 2013, significantly impacted the Marmaray timeline, delaying the project's opening from its original planned 2009 date to October 2013 to allow for thorough documentation and preservation efforts.^[15] This postponement, amounting to about a year directly attributable to the archaeological work, underscored the tension between modern infrastructure development and cultural heritage protection.^[21] In response, the Yenikapı site was established as an archaeological museum and park, integrating preserved finds and displays into the rail station to educate visitors on Istanbul's layered history while enabling ongoing research.^[42]

Technical Specifications

Infrastructure and Tunnel Design

The Marmaray rail system utilizes standard gauge tracks measuring 1,435 mm, facilitating compatibility with international rail standards and enabling efficient commuter operations across Istanbul. The infrastructure features double tracks for commuter services, supplemented by a third track in select sections for intercity and freight integration. Electrification is provided via overhead catenary wires at 25 kV 50 Hz AC, supporting high-capacity power delivery for the line's demanding passenger volumes.^[2]^[43] The network comprises 43 stations, designed to handle peak commuter flows with platforms optimized for rapid boarding and alighting. Key interchange points include Bakırköy, which connects to the M3 metro line; Yenikapı, linking to M1 and M2 metro lines as well as trams and ferries; and Üsküdar, integrating with the M5 metro line. These stations feature modern amenities such as escalators, elevators, and integrated ticketing systems to enhance multimodal connectivity. The overall design accommodates high-speed commuter service with a maximum operational speed of up to 105 km/h, prioritizing reliability and frequency over long-distance velocity.^[44]^[11]^[45] Central to the infrastructure is the 1.4 km immersed tube tunnel beneath the Bosphorus Strait, constructed using prefabricated concrete sections each approximately 100-130 m long and weighing up to 18,000 tons. These sections were manufactured onshore, floated into position, and sunk into a dredged trench starting in 2008, with the final elements placed by September of that year. The tunnel incorporates watertight rubber joints and flexible connections to accommodate ground movements, ensuring structural integrity in the seismically active region. Flanking the immersed tube are 9.8 km of bored tunnels and 2.4 km of cut-and-cover sections, all integrated to form a seamless 13.6 km underground corridor linking the European and Asian sides.^[2]^[21]^[11]

Rolling Stock

The Marmaray line operates with a fleet of TCDD E32000 electric multiple units (EMUs) built by Hyundai Rotem in South Korea, consisting of 34 ten-car sets and 20 five-car sets for a total of 440 cars. These commuter trains were procured exclusively for the Marmaray network to provide high-capacity urban rail service across Istanbul.^[46]^[47] In November 2008, Hyundai Rotem secured a €580 million contract from Turkey's Ministry of Transport to supply the rolling stock, with some local production handled by the Hyundai Rotem-TÜVASAŞ joint venture Eurotem. Deliveries began in 2011, and the first units entered revenue service in 2013 after testing on Istanbul's existing suburban lines. Maintenance responsibilities fall to TCDD Taşımacılık, the Turkish State Railways' passenger transport arm, ensuring ongoing reliability for daily operations.^[48]^[49] The E32000 EMUs achieve a maximum speed of 105 km/h, with an operational speed of around 80 km/h on the Marmaray route to align with tunnel and urban constraints. Each ten-car set accommodates up to 3,274 passengers, including 496 seats and standing room for 2,778, while five-car sets hold about 1,637 passengers under similar loading conditions; this design prioritizes high-density commuter flow with wide doors and longitudinal seating. The trains incorporate regenerative braking to recover energy during deceleration, enhancing efficiency on the electrified 25 kV 50 Hz AC system, and feature accessibility elements such as dedicated wheelchair spaces and low-floor entry for improved passenger inclusivity.^[2]

Earthquake Protection

The Marmaray project incorporates advanced seismic engineering to mitigate risks from its location near the North Anatolian Fault, one of the world's most active seismic zones. The design standards account for a potential magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurring in close proximity to the fault, ensuring the structure remains operational with minimal disruption post-event.^[50]^[51] A key feature is the use of flexible joints in the immersed tube section, which connect the prefabricated concrete elements and permit up to 0.5 meters of lateral movement to absorb ground shifts without structural failure.^[50]^[52] These joints, combined with the tunnel's overall flexibility, allow it to deform rather than fracture during intense shaking.^[52] The tunnel is positioned up to 55 meters below sea level in relatively stable sedimentary layers, including clayey soils, to enhance resistance to liquefaction and differential settlement.^[50]^[52] Safety measures include escape passages integrated into the tunnel compartments at regular intervals, approximately every 130 meters, providing pedestrian walkways between tracks for emergency evacuation.^[53] Additionally, an automatic shutdown system, triggered by seismic monitoring sensors, halts train operations in real-time upon detecting significant ground motion, preventing accidents and facilitating safe passenger egress. The seismic design complies with Eurocode 8 for earthquake-resistant structures and the Turkish Earthquake Code (TEC 2007), incorporating probabilistic and deterministic hazard assessments to define the design basis earthquake at magnitude 7.5 for operational continuity, while exceeding these for extreme scenarios up to 9.0.^[52]^[54] Extensive testing, including dynamic simulations and scale model analyses of joint performance under simulated fault displacements, verified the system's integrity, confirming no loss of watertightness or functionality beyond repairable limits.^[52]^[54]

Operations

Opening and Inauguration

The Marmaray project achieved its partial opening on October 29, 2013, coinciding with the 90th anniversary of the Turkish Republic, marking the inaugural operation of the 13.6 km underwater rail tunnel beneath the Bosphorus Strait connecting Asia's Ayrılık Çeşmesi station to Europe's Yenikapı station.^[55] The ceremony was presided over by Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, with attendance from President Abdullah Gül and other dignitaries, highlighting the project's role in linking Istanbul's European and Asian sides for the first time via rail.^[56] This initial phase included three stations on the European side and two on the Asian side of the strait and integrated with existing suburban rail lines, enabling commuter services to begin immediately.^[57] The full line was inaugurated on March 12, 2019, extending the network to a 76.6 km route from Halkalı in the west to Gebze in the east, encompassing 43 stations and completing the cross-continental commuter corridor.^[32] President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan officiated the event, emphasizing the line's capacity to reduce travel times from 185 minutes to 115 minutes across Istanbul (actual end-to-end time is 108 minutes).^[30] Following the opening, daily ridership surged to an average of 365,000 passengers in the initial period, reflecting strong public adoption despite the project's phased rollout.^[58] Early operations faced challenges, including technical snags such as signaling malfunctions on the first day of the 2013 partial opening, which briefly halted services and required immediate troubleshooting for system integration with legacy rail networks.^[59] Overcrowding also emerged quickly, exacerbated by a 15-day free ride promotion that drew excessive crowds beyond initial capacity projections, leading to platform congestion and delays at stations.^[60] These issues prompted adjustments in scheduling and crowd management protocols to ensure smoother integration and reliability in the subsequent full launch.^[61]

Passenger Services

Marmaray operates as a vital commuter rail service connecting Istanbul's European and Asian sides, facilitating daily travel for urban residents across a 76.6 km route from Halkalı to Gebze. Trains run daily from 06:00 to 23:30 on weekdays, extending to 01:30 on weekends, with frequencies varying by section to accommodate peak demand: every 8 minutes on the high-density Ataköy–Pendik segment during most operating hours, and every 15 minutes on the full Halkalı–Gebze line.^[62] The end-to-end journey takes approximately 108 minutes, including a 4-minute underwater passage beneath the Bosphorus, enabling efficient cross-continental commuting.^[63] Fares are structured on a distance-based system using the Istanbulkart contactless smart card, which integrates seamlessly with Istanbul's broader public transit network, including metro, trams, buses, metrobüs, ferries, and funiculars for transfers without additional cost within specified time windows. For full-fare passengers, costs range from 27.00 TL for short trips (1–7 stations) to 59.76 TL for the longest journeys (36–43 stations), with discounted rates for students (13.18–27.00 TL) and social categories like teachers or the elderly (19.33–41.66 TL) as of January 2025.^[64]^[65] The system supports a projected daily capacity of 1.7 million passengers by 2025, reflecting its role in alleviating traffic congestion and promoting sustainable urban mobility.^[2] The line serves 43 stations, many of which feature accessibility enhancements for passengers with disabilities, including elevators, escalators, ramps, Braille signage, and audio announcement systems to ensure independent navigation.^[11]^[66] Real-time information is available through mobile applications like Moovit and the official Metro İstanbul app, providing live train tracking, arrival predictions, and route planning to enhance user experience.^[67]^[68]

Freight Services

Freight services on the Marmaray line operate within a mixed-traffic framework, where freight trains primarily run during nighttime hours to minimize interference with peak passenger operations, allowing up to 21 pairs of trains per day in designated slots.^[69] A key aspect of these services involves international connections under the Belt and Road Initiative, with the inaugural China-Europe freight train—the China Railway Express from Xi'an, China, to Prague, Czech Republic—passing through the Marmaray tunnel on November 7, 2019.^[70] This 11,500 km journey utilized the Trans-Caspian International Transport Route and continued via Bulgaria, Hungary, and Slovakia, marking the first uninterrupted rail link of its kind through the undersea tunnel.^[70] The service has substantially improved logistics efficiency, reducing the transit time for cargo from China to Turkey to 12 days, compared to approximately one month by traditional sea routes.^[70] Trains on this route, such as the pioneering one, comprise 42 carriages, each offering 76 cubic meters of freight space, supporting diverse goods transport across Eurasia.^[70] Marmaray's freight operations integrate seamlessly with the Halkalı yard on Istanbul's European side and the Gebze yard on the Asian side, which function as primary hubs for loading, unloading, and marshalling cargo destined for or arriving from continental routes.^[71]

Recent Developments and Extensions

In recent years, the Marmaray project has seen significant expansions aimed at enhancing connectivity and capacity across the Istanbul metropolitan area and beyond. A key development is the western extension of the Marmaray suburban rail service to Çerkezköy, which involves two major sections: the 8.4 km Halkalı-Ispartakule segment and the 153 km Çerkezköy-Kapıküle segment. These extensions form part of the broader Halkalı-Kapıküle high-speed railway line, designed to integrate with the existing Marmaray network and improve passenger and freight links to the European side. Construction on the Halkalı-Ispartakule section, which connects the current Marmaray endpoint at Halkalı to Ispartakule, is advancing rapidly as part of efforts to extend urban rail services westward. Meanwhile, the longer Çerkezköy-Kapıküle section, linking Çerkezköy to the Bulgarian border at Kapıküle, has achieved approximately 88% physical progress as of late 2024, with electrification and signaling works underway across its double-track alignment. As of November 2025, both sections are targeted for completion by the end of 2025, enabling seamless Marmaray operations to Çerkezköy and facilitating faster international connections.^[72]^[73]^[74] To address growing congestion on the existing Bosphorus crossings, plans for a third rail tunnel—known as the Great Istanbul Tunnel—have progressed, with construction underway for a 6.5 km multi-modal undersea link scheduled to open in 2028. This tunnel will include dedicated rail components, providing an additional crossing for suburban and metro services to alleviate pressure on the Marmaray tunnel. It is projected to add capacity for 1.3 million daily passengers, significantly enhancing overall transit efficiency between Europe's and Asia's sides of Istanbul.^[75]^[76] Complementing these passenger-focused initiatives, a tender for the Northern Railway Crossing Project was announced in 2025 to divert freight traffic away from Marmaray and create a dedicated bypass route. Valued at approximately $8.1 billion, this 125 km greenfield double-track, electrified railway will span from Çayırova on the Asian side to Çatalca on the European side, crossing the Bosphorus via existing alignments while incorporating new bridges, viaducts, and tunnels. The project aims to boost freight capacity, reduce nighttime restrictions on Marmaray, and strengthen Turkey's role in Eurasian rail corridors, with tenders expected before the end of 2025.^[77]^[78]^[79]

Financing and Impact

Funding Sources

The Marmaray project had an estimated total cost of approximately €3.6 billion based on 2004 projections. Funding was primarily sourced from international loans, with contributions from the Turkish government, reflecting a collaborative approach to finance this major infrastructure initiative.^[80] Among the key international lenders, the Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) extended a substantial loan equivalent to approximately €1.1 billion to support construction and related works. The Islamic Development Bank provided €300 million in financing, targeting aspects of the rail infrastructure development. The European Investment Bank (EIB) contributed significantly through multiple soft loans totaling €1.25 billion, disbursed in tranches from 2005 onward to cover tunneling, stations, and rolling stock. Additional support came from institutions such as the Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB), which granted €217 million for urban transport enhancements linked to the project.^[81]^[82]^[83] Project management and oversight were handled by the Turkish Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure in coordination with the State Railways of the Republic of Turkey (TCDD), ensuring alignment with national transport goals and compliance with lender requirements.^[20] The Marmaray project has delivered substantial economic benefits to Istanbul by facilitating a modal shift from road to rail transport, thereby reducing operational costs associated with fuel and vehicle maintenance. According to assessments by PGlobal, the system generates annual fuel savings of up to TL 64 million through the elimination of approximately 25,430 daily car, bus, and minibus trips that would otherwise contribute to road traffic.^[84] Additionally, the project's integration of freight services has enhanced regional trade efficiency, serving as a key link in the modern Silk Road corridor by lowering the cost and duration of commercial rail transport between Asia and Europe.^[85] This has boosted economic connectivity, with the European Investment Bank noting an economic internal rate of return of around 10%, driven by long-term socio-economic gains from improved transport infrastructure.^[20] On the social front, Marmaray has transformed daily life for Istanbul's approximately 16 million residents by providing seamless cross-continental connectivity, particularly for commuters traveling between the European and Asian sides of the city. The underwater tunnel reduces Bosphorus crossing times from up to five hours during peak periods to just four minutes, significantly alleviating urban mobility challenges.^[86] For longer journeys along the 76.3 km line, end-to-end travel from Halkalı to Gebze now takes approximately 108 minutes, a reduction of more than three hours compared to previous road-based options between major population centers during peak times.^[3] PGlobal estimates annual time savings valued at up to TL 382 million, enhancing productivity and quality of life for users while supporting equitable access to employment and services across the metropolis.^[84] Environmentally, the shift to electric rail via Marmaray has contributed to lower greenhouse gas emissions and improved urban air quality in Istanbul. The project monetizes annual CO₂ reduction benefits at TL 1.9 million, stemming from decreased road vehicle usage and associated fuel combustion.^[84] By promoting sustainable commuting and reducing reliance on private cars, it aligns with broader goals for urban sustainability, including cuts in noise pollution and road accidents, as highlighted in the European Investment Bank's evaluation of the modal shift's positive externalities.^[20]

Performance and Statistics

Usage Figures

In 2019, Marmaray achieved an annual ridership of 124 million passengers, marking a significant milestone in its early full operations following the extension to Halkalı and Gebze.^[87] This figure represented an 84% increase from the previous year, driven by expanded service coverage across Istanbul's European and Asian sides.^[87] Peak daily ridership exceeded 500,000 passengers on multiple occasions, with a recorded high of over 500,000 on November 20, 2019.^[87] The system's design capacity supports up to 75,000 passengers per hour in each direction, enabling a maximum of 1.7 million daily riders to accommodate growing urban demand.^[61] As of 2025, actual average daily ridership stands at approximately 600,000, with a peak of 743,596 recorded in December 2024.^[5] By October 2025, cumulative ridership reached 1.43 billion passengers since the project's inauguration in 2013, underscoring its role as a vital commuter artery.^[88] Post-2019 growth trends showed robust recovery after an initial dip due to the COVID-19 pandemic; for instance, annual figures rose from 115 million in 2021 to 191 million in 2022, with further increases to approximately 208 million in 2024.^[89]^[90] This rebound reflected enhanced service frequencies and integration with Istanbul's broader transit network, sustaining average daily usage above 500,000 passengers in recent years.^[5]

Safety and Reliability

Marmaray has maintained an exemplary safety record since its opening in October 2013, with no major accidents or derailments reported over the subsequent decade. The system's design incorporates advanced safety features, including automated train control and comprehensive fire suppression systems, contributing to its incident-free operation in terms of structural failures or collisions. Minor operational disruptions, such as a door malfunction on the inaugural day that briefly halted services, were swiftly addressed without passenger injuries.^[91] Isolated incidents involving individuals on tracks or escalator-related injuries have occurred, but these are typical of urban rail networks and have not compromised overall safety metrics.^[92]^[93] Reliability remains a cornerstone of Marmaray's operations, supported by regular maintenance cycles that include nightly inspections and periodic overhauls of signaling and track infrastructure to minimize downtime. The line achieves high on-time performance, enabling consistent service across its 76.6 km route despite high passenger volumes. Earthquake preparedness is integrated into routine protocols, with drills conducted as part of Istanbul's broader seismic resilience efforts; the immersed tube tunnel, for instance, features a seismic monitoring system that performed effectively during the 2014 Northern Aegean Earthquake (Mw 6.9), detecting minimal displacements.^[94]^[95]^[96] Post-2023 enhancements to Istanbul's public transport network, prompted by the Kahramanmaraş earthquakes, have bolstered Marmaray's emergency protocols through improved surveillance integration and coordinated response training, ensuring rapid activation during potential crises. The system's foundational seismic design, capable of withstanding magnitudes up to 7.5, continues to underpin its reliability in a high-risk zone near the North Anatolian Fault.^[97]^[13]

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Turkey realizes Ottoman dream with rail tunnel linking Europe to Asia
Oct 29, 2013 · Some 17,000 people were killed in 1999 when a 7.6 magnitude quake struck the western city of Izmit. The Marmaray will reduce car traffic by ...
[13]
Marmaray: the modern day Silk Road - Daily Sabah
Oct 28, 2013 · Deemed the “Project of the century', the undersea rail tunnel, which will connect the continents Europe and Asia in Istanbul and relieve a ...Missing: announcement objectives
[14]
Marmaray tunnel opens to link Europe with Asia - Railway Gazette
Oct 29, 2013 · A comprehensive study in 1987 established that the project was feasible and selected the alignment, including the 1·4 km immersed tube ...
[15]
The Marmaray Project In Istanbul: A Shift From Roads To Railways
In order to tackle both urban traffic congestion and air pollution, local authorities and the government are investing in alternative modes for urban ...Missing: reduce | Show results with:reduce
[16]
Turkey's Marmaray Subway Tunnel Fulfills a 150-Year-old Dream for ...
The Turkish government embarked on the ambitious Marmaray Project in the late eighties to alleviate traffic congestion and reduce air pollution caused by ...Missing: 2000 | Show results with:2000
[17]
Japan's Unwavering Commitment to Development and Future - JICA
Oct 6, 2024 · The Bosphorus Rail Tube Crossing Project (commonly known as “Marmaray”) is one of the well known ODA loan projects in Türkiye, that connects ...Missing: feasibility | Show results with:feasibility
[18]
[PDF] PROJECT COMPLETION REPORT - European Investment Bank
Dec 21, 2021 · The Marmaray project was the subject of three EIB operations, i.e. BOSPHORUS TUNNEL (1999-0272),. BOSPHORUS TUNNEL TRANCHE B (2013-0129) and ...
[19]
[PDF] The Marmaray project - IMIA
The upgrade of the suburban lines re- quires the addition of a third parallel track, to increase capacity to 75,000 passengers per hour in each direction.
[20]
Marmaray Tunnel construction under the Bosphorus
Jun 25, 2010 · The Marmaray tunnel was completed on 23 September 2008 with a formal ceremony to mark the completion of the tunnel on 13 October. Completion ...
[21]
[PDF] The Istanbul Case - Transit Costs Project
The line started service in 2000. M1B has ... Many aspects of Marmaray demanded unique planning and management solutions, on top of which, archeological.
[22]
811 km railway electrified - Rail Turkey En
Jun 30, 2020 · In the new map, Halkali-Gebze route can be seen as electrification completed. This is the remaining part of Marmaray. Now both passenger and ...Missing: tracks | Show results with:tracks
[23]
Marmaray Project, Signalization and Telecommunication Systems ...
The installation of CBTC and ERTMS Level 1 Train Control System on the mixed traffic line (commuter + high speed line) between Gebze and Halkalı (Istanbul), ...
[24]
Turkey's Marmaray rail line enters service with Siemens Mobility ...
Mar 13, 2019 · The line will have an overall length of 76 kilometers and allows a mixed commuter, intercity and freight service for the metropolitan area of ...
[25]
[PDF] The Marmaray Railway Infrastructure - Preprints.org
Jun 21, 2023 · In order to determine the Marmaray's path, scientists started their research in 1984. The works' final tender was released in 2003 as part ...
[26]
Istanbul Marmaray link second phase to open in 2017
The project has included the addition of a third track along much of the route, which will increase capacity to 75,000 passengers per hour per direction ...Missing: electrification | Show results with:electrification
[27]
Marmaray Suburban Rail Opens: Connecting Istanbul's East & West
Mar 12, 2019 · The line currently has connections with the M1A, M1B, M2 metro lines at Yenikapı station, the T1 tram line at Sirkeci station, the M5 metro line ...Missing: integration | Show results with:integration
[28]
Turkey: Inauguration of the Gebze-Halkalı commuter line held on 12 ...
May 7, 2019 · Including the Marmaray, we are integrating this line both with metro lines, high speed lines and freight lines. Now, the residents of İstanbul ...Missing: upgrades electrification
[29]
Marmaray railway finally connects Europe and Asia - RailTech.com
Mar 13, 2019 · Turkey has inaugurated the second phase of the Marmaray railway line that connects Europe and Asia ... The Halkalı-Gebze commuter route includes ...Missing: integration | Show results with:integration
[30]
Turkish president opens full Istanbul Marmaray rail link
Mar 12, 2019 · The president of Turkey Mr Recep Tayyip Erdogan officially opened the 63km Halkali - Istanbul - Gebze railway on March 12.Missing: government | Show results with:government
[31]
Yenikapı Byzantine Shipwrecks Project
The Yenikapı site, located in the Istanbul neighborhood of the same name, witnessed one of the world's largest archaeological digs between 2004 and 2013.
[32]
Uncovering Yenikapi - Saudi Aramco World
The remains of the port were discovered in 2004 when excavation began for the $4-billion Marmaray urban transit system's hub, which was then redesigned to ...
[33]
Discoveries and Excavations - Yenikapı Batıkları
The excavations confirmed that the harbor was established on a natural bay but filled up with the alluvium from the Lykos (Bayrampaşa) creek, making it situated ...
[34]
Full article: The Yenikapı Byzantine‐Era Shipwrecks, Istanbul, Turkey
In addition to thousands of archaeological artefacts, a total of 37 shipwrecks dating from the 5th to the 11th centuries AD were uncovered, constituting the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
The Secret of the Shipwrecks at Theodosius Harbor - Arkeonews
Apr 11, 2023 · The 1,600-year-old sandals and comb unearthed during the excavations of Theodosius Harbor (Portus Theodosiacus), the second-biggest harbor ...Missing: Yenikapı | Show results with:Yenikapı
[36]
8500-year-old footprints and graves are rewriting the history of Istanbul
So far, archaeologists have discovered 37 shipwrecks, wooden tombs containing human remains, leather and wooden sandals, wooden cups, amphorae containing fruit ...
[37]
The Unusual Story of Yenikapı Station - İstanbul
As a result of the excavations, it was understood that the Sea of Marmara had been a lake at that time and that Neolithic people had settled around this lake.Missing: prehistoric | Show results with:prehistoric
[38]
Early Neolithic discoveries at Istanbul | Antiquity Journal
Recent large-scale rescue excavations of the Yenikapi-Marmaray projects (Marmaray 2007; Kocabas 2008) have demonstrated that there is fine prehistory still ...Missing: artifacts | Show results with:artifacts
[39]
History of 8,500 years waits for a museum - Arkeonews
Jun 19, 2023 · The conservation process of the Yenikapı shipwrecks, which were discovered during the Marmaray project and considered the largest collection of ancient ships ...
[40]
A General Introduction to the Marmaray Project | UIC Communications
Nov 5, 2013 · The Marmaray Project connects Istanbul's sides by rail, using two different train control systems on the same line, and has 5 and 10 coach ...
[41]
Turkey's Marmaray opens in Istanbul - Anadolu Ajansı
Oct 29, 2013 · One of the turning points of the dream of 150 years was turned on January, 15, 2012 and PM Erdogan welded the first rail put on the Marmaray ...
[42]
Marmaray In Istanbul: Routes, Stations, Transfers, Schedule, And ...
Mar 5, 2024 · Key transfer stations include: Halkalı: M1B Yenikapı-Halkalı metro line transfer; Ataköy: M9 İkitelli-Ataköy metro line transfer; Bakırköy: M3 ...
[43]
Turkish rail network prepares for the future - Global Railway Review
Commuter rolling stock for the Marmaray project is being supplied by Hyundai Rotem of South Korea, which is building 34×10-car and 20×5-car EMUs for the cross- ...
[44]
Marmaray Served 1.4 Billion Passengers in 12 Years - RaillyNews
Oct 29, 2025 · The Marmaray fleet consists of 34 10-car and 20 5-car trains. 54 train sets and 440 wagons noted that it occurred. Beyond the Urban Line ...
[45]
Hyundai Rotem signs Marmaray train contract - Railway Gazette
Nov 14, 2008 · Hyundai Rotem announced on November 11 that it had signed a €580m contract to supply the rolling stock for the Marmaray cross-Bosporus tunnel project in ...
[46]
Marmaray test operation to start next month
Jul 8, 2013 · The fleet of 54 Hyundai-Rotem commuter emus will be equipped exclusively with CBTC and drivers will refer only to their cab displays. Initially, ...Missing: size E32000
[47]
How Turkey made its railway tunnel under the Bosphorus ... - Quartz
Jul 21, 2022 · Istanbul's Marmaray tunnel connects Europe and Asia, delving 1.4 ... built to withstand earthquake magnitudes up to 9.0. The tunnel, a ...
[48]
Mayor brushes Marmaray concerns aside as engineers issue safety ...
Oct 29, 2013 · Attempting to answer these concerns, last week Transport Minister Binali Yıldırım had said the design would be resistant to a more than 9.0- ...
[49]
[PDF] SEISMIC DESIGN FOR IMMERSED TUBE TUNNEL AND ITS ...
In Marmaray project, about 13km railway tunnel has been constructed. As for the types of tunnel structure, immersed tube tunnel is selected under the Bosphorus ...Missing: infrastructure | Show results with:infrastructure
[50]
A sinking success in Istanbul - Tunnels
Oct 19, 2010 · Due to seismic activity in the region, the tube had to be designed to handle an earthquake of up to 7.5 on the Richter Scale. This was achieved ...
[51]
[PDF] The Marmaray Project: Managing a Large Scale Project with Various ...
Figure 2: Marmaray Project, Istanbul Strait Crossing. The most important objectives are to: a) provide a long-term solution to the current urban transport.Missing: announcement 2000 government<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
Ottoman Dream Come True: Train Links East And West In Istanbul
Oct 30, 2013 · Speaking of history, why did Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan open the tunnel on Republic Day, the 90th anniversary of Kemal Ataturk's ...Missing: partial 29
[53]
Marmaray Project, the Bosphorus Rail Link connecting Europe and ...
Oct 29, 2013 · The Marmaray Project – the Bosphorus rail link connecting the European and the Asian sides of Istanbul and creating the first physical rail ...
[54]
A project for peace and humanity - Daily Sabah
Oct 30, 2013 · The highly anticipated Marmaray rail tunnel project was opened with a landmark ceremony held by Prime Minister Erdoğan and attended by a ...
[55]
845 freight trains pass Istanbul's Europe-to-Asia subsea tunnel
May 16, 2021 · The Halkalı line, its last stop on the European side of the city, opened March 12, 2019, and served an average of 350,000 to 420,000 passengers ...
[56]
Snags reported on first day of Bosphorus Strait train tunnel operation
Oct 30, 2013 · ... Recep Tayyip Erdogan ... A train is stationed at the Uskudar Marmaray station ahead of its inauguration ceremony in Istanbul on October 29, 2013.Missing: partial | Show results with:partial
[57]
Bosphorus tunnel inauguration – DW – 10/29/2013
Oct 29, 2013 · The tunnel is one of a large number of infrastructure projects undertaken by the government of Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan. While ...Missing: partial | Show results with:partial
[58]
Marmaray suburban rail corridor across Istanbul opened
Mar 12, 2019 · Speaking at the ceremony, Erdoğan said the suburban services were expected to carry up to 75 000 passengers/h or around 1·7 million passengers/ ...
[59]
Marmaray Saatleri - Süre Hesaplama
### Marmaray Train Schedules and Frequency
[60]
Marmaray Duraklar Arası Kaç Dakika? - Marmaray
- **Total Travel Time from Halkalı to Gebze**: 108 minutes
[61]
Marmaray Ücretleri - Ücret Hesaplama
2025 yılı Ocak ayı Güncel Marmaray Ücretleri: Tam Bilet, En kısa yolculukta 27,00 TL, en uzun yolculuklarda 59,76 TL olarak fiyatlandırılmıştır.
[62]
Reference - Marmaray Istanbul | Schindler Group
Sep 20, 2017 · Schindler's contribution of 10 elevators and 63 escalators to the Marmaray Project included the challenge of fitting 4 escalators that are among the longest in ...
[63]
Marmaray, Istanbul – Train Schedules, Routes & Updates - Moovit
The Moovit app can be used as an Marmaray train tracker, providing real-time locations, arrival times, and live status of train lines on an interactive transit ...
[64]
Istanbul Transportation Apps - Istanbul.com Blog
Sep 25, 2025 · Discover the best Istanbul transportation apps: Metro İstanbul, IETT bus tracker, İstanbulkart, Marmaray, Moovit, BiTaksi, iTaksi, Uber, ...
[65]
Turkey to benefit more from BRI as China-Europe freight trains ...
Nov 8, 2019 · The freight train, the China Railway Express, is the first such train to pass through the Marmaray subsea tunnel. It departed from Xi'an, China, ...
[66]
Can freight trains pass through Marmaray tunnel? - Rail Turkey En
Jan 9, 2019 · Thus freight trains can only run between Gebze and Halkali within that 6 hours. That hours are also for inspection of the line. Freight ...Missing: yards | Show results with:yards
[67]
HALKALI-ISPARTAKULE VE KAPIKULE-ÇERKEZKÖY İÇİN HEDEF ...
Oct 12, 2024 · Kapıkule-Çerkezköy etabının genelinde yaklaşık yüzde 88 fiziki ilerleme sağladık ve bu etaptaki çalışmalarımızı 2025 yılı sonunda tamamlamayı ...Missing: Marmaray western extension
[68]
New railway project sparks interest in Thrace - Hürriyet Daily News
Jun 19, 2024 · The first phase of the project, the 153-kilometer section between Çerkezköy and Kapıkule, is planned to be completed by the end of 2025; the 67- ...
[69]
3rd tunnel under Bosporus in the works, set to open in 2028
May 10, 2023 · The third tunnel connecting the European and Asian sides of Istanbul, officially named the "Great Istanbul Tunnel" by the government, will be put into service ...
[70]
Third tunnel to connect the European and Asian sides of Istanbul ...
The Great Istanbul Tunnel will be the city's third crossing under the Bosporus, following the 3.5 km long Marmaray Tunnel and the 5.4 km Eurasia Tunnel.
[71]
Türkiye to launch tender for largest-ever railway project
Oct 2, 2025 · The $8.1 billion project foresees the construction of a 125-kilometer freight railway line linking Çayırova on the Asian side to Çatalca on the ...
[72]
Türkiye takes first step toward costly Istanbul rail bypass
Oct 20, 2025 · “Currently, rail traffic can only pass through the Marmaray tunnel, while freight trains are restricted to a limited nighttime slot, severely ...
[73]
Türkiye set to launch tender for cross-Bosporus railway link
Oct 1, 2025 · Known as the Northern Railway Crossing Project, it will create a new high-capacity rail line to strengthen freight and passenger connections ...
[74]
TURKEY COMPLETES A MAJOR STEP IN THE MARMARAY ...
Oct 15, 2008 · Marmaray's eventual cost is now estimated at $3.6 billion. Erdogan laid the cornerstone for the project on May 9, 2004 (Yeni Safak, May 10, 2004) ...Missing: government | Show results with:government<|separator|>
[75]
[PDF] The Marmaray Project in Istanbul: a shift from roads to railways
In order to tackle both urban traffic congestion and air pollution, local authorities and the government are investing in alternative modes for urban ...
[76]
Turkey: Further EUR 200 million from the EIB for the Marmaray ...
May 8, 2014 · With the additional EUR 200 million, the EIB's total support for Marmaray now amounts to EUR 1.25 billion. The project consists of connecting ...
[77]
CEB and Turkey sign a € 217 million loan in favour of the Marmaray ...
Jun 24, 2008 · CEB is extending a € 217 million loan to the Republic of Turkey to part-finance the Marmaray Project, the trans-Bosphorus rail link aimed at significantly ...Missing: involvement | Show results with:involvement
[78]
[PDF] Assessing the Economic Benefits of Marmaray - PGLOBAL
PGlobal calculations indicated that Marmaray may contribute to the reduction of emissions in Istanbul. These benefits are monetized TL 1.9 million TL per ...
[79]
MARMARAY “Bosphorus Intercontinental Railroad Tunnel “
The process and detailed history of the Marmaray Project by TAISEI – GAMA – NUROL partnership has been compiled into a book by GAMA Holding as the project marks ...
[80]
Bosphorus tunnel: building a milestone link between Europe and Asia
Feb 15, 2010 · The immersed tunnel beneath the Bosphorus strait has now been completed along with many kilometres of tunnels on land. Rewriting Istanbul's ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
Demir yolu taşımacılığında 2019 rekor yılı oldu - Anadolu Ajansı
Feb 25, 2020 · ... 2019'da taşınan yolcu sayısı yüzde 84 artışla 124 milyon oldu. Marmaray'da 500 binin üzerinde yolcunun taşındığı 20 Kasım 2019'da ...
[82]
Marmaray 12 yılda 1,4 milyarı aşkın yolcuya hizmet verdi - Bigpara
Oct 29, 2025 · Ulaştırma ve Altyapı Bakanı Abdulkadir Uraloğlu, Marmaray'ın açılışından bu yana geçen 12 yılda 1 milyar 430 milyon yolcuya hizmet verdiğini ...
[83]
[PDF] 2021 yılı faaliyet raporu - tcddtasimacilik.gov.tr
Covid-19 pandemisi nedeniyle alınan önlemler kapsamında Marmaray'da 2020 yılına göre. %35 artış sağlanarak 2021 yılında 115.320.458 yolcu taşınmıştır. Yıllık ...
[84]
Istanbul's Marmaray hits new daily record with 743,596 passengers
Dec 22, 2024 · Since its inauguration on Oct. 29, 2013, Marmaray has served 1.226 billion passengers, with the numbers increasing each year, Uraloglu added.Missing: initial | Show results with:initial
[85]
Marmaray hit by problems on the first day in service - Türkiye News
Oct 31, 2013 · Marmaray journeys from the Anatolian side to the European side of Istanbul were halted for a period of time due to a technical malfunction in the doors on Oct. ...Missing: 2014 signaling<|separator|>
[86]
Istanbul's Marmaray train services suspended after person dies on ...
Apr 12, 2018 · Istanbul's Marmaray train services were suspended on April 12 after one person fell on the tracks and died, Doğan News Agency reported.
[87]
Escalator-related injuries in one of the deepest subway stations in ...
This study presents the demographic and clinical features of all injuries that occurred in association with escalator use on the the Marmaray metro line and ...
[88]
[PDF] ISTANBUL TRANSPORT ANNUAL REPORT - tuhim
Marmaray line: Halkali – Gebze. Project status. Responsible. Authority. Estimated project cost. Project period. Under upgrade. Ministry of Transport/. General ...
[89]
Response of Marmaray Submerged Tunnel during 2014 Northern ...
This paper presents a study made on the response of MST during the May 24, 2014 Northern Aegean Earthquake (M w =6.9) that occurred 300 km away from MST.
[90]
Marmara Earthquake: Preparedness and Lessons 26 Years On
Aug 17, 2025 · Public buildings and infrastructure have undergone strengthening, while educational programs now include disaster awareness, earthquake drills, ...Missing: Marmaray maintenance
[91]
Measures taken to protect Istanbul ahead of expected Marmara quake
Aug 31, 2023 · “We completed the replacement of all July 15 Martyrs Bridge suspension cables while work continues to upgrade earthquake wedges and expansion ...Missing: enhancements | Show results with:enhancements<|separator|>