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Mebeverine

Mebeverine is a synthetic musculotropic antispasmodic medication primarily indicated for the symptomatic treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), including abdominal pain, cramping, and associated gastrointestinal spasms.^[1] With the chemical formula C₂₅H₃₅NO₅ and IUPAC name 4-[ethyl-[1-(4-methoxyphenyl)propan-2-yl]amino]butyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzoate, it is classified under ATC code A03AA04 for drugs targeting functional gastrointestinal disorders and is available as a small molecule drug in oral formulations such as 135 mg tablets or modified-release capsules.^[1] Known by brand names including Colofac, Duspatalin, and Spasmotalin, mebeverine has been in clinical use since the 1960s and is approved in numerous countries, particularly in Europe, though it lacks FDA approval in the United States.^[1]^[2] It is also used in children aged 10 and over under medical supervision.^[3] Mebeverine exerts its therapeutic effects through direct action on the smooth muscles of the gastrointestinal tract, promoting relaxation and reducing spasms without significant interference with normal peristalsis or anticholinergic activity at therapeutic doses.^[4] Its mechanism primarily involves inhibition of voltage-dependent calcium channels in smooth muscle cells, alongside potential phosphodiesterase inhibition and mild local anesthetic properties, leading to decreased intestinal contractility and pain relief.^[5] Systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials, encompassing over 1,800 patients, have confirmed its efficacy in alleviating IBS symptoms such as abdominal pain (with statistically significant reductions in multiple studies, p < 0.05 to p < 0.001), bloating, and irregular bowel habits, particularly at doses of 135 mg three times daily or 200 mg twice daily in controlled-release form.^[6] It is also investigated for post-cholecystectomy gastrointestinal spasms and other functional bowel disorders, showing phase IV clinical trial support for broader gastrointestinal applications.^[1] The drug demonstrates a favorable safety profile, with adverse effects reported in fewer than 10% of users, typically mild and gastrointestinal in nature (e.g., constipation or nausea), and rare serious events unrelated to treatment.^[6] Unlike traditional anticholinergics, mebeverine has low systemic absorption and minimal impact on cardiovascular or central nervous systems, making it suitable for long-term use in adults, though it is contraindicated in cases of paralytic ileus, not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding, and requires caution in severe hepatic impairment or children under 10 years.^[6]^[7] Ongoing research highlights its role in IBS management guidelines, emphasizing its tolerability and clinical utility over placebo in real-world settings, despite some meta-analyses noting modest statistical effects that underscore the need for personalized dosing.^[4]

Medical Uses

Indications

Mebeverine is primarily indicated for the symptomatic relief of abdominal pain, cramps, spasms, diarrhea, and flatulence associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).^[6] As a musculotropic antispasmodic, it targets intestinal smooth muscle spasms to alleviate these core IBS symptoms, making it a standard option in managing the condition's gastrointestinal manifestations.^[4] Secondary indications include the treatment of intestinal cramps, spastic colitis (often overlapping with IBS presentations), and gastrointestinal spasms following cholecystectomy.^[8] Clinical studies have demonstrated its effectiveness in reducing post-cholecystectomy spasms, with patients experiencing significant symptom elimination after therapy.^[9] Evidence from clinical trials on mebeverine's efficacy in IBS shows mixed results; early studies reported no significant difference from placebo in global symptom improvement or abdominal pain relief.^[10] In contrast, recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses confirm its efficacy for IBS symptom relief, highlighting benefits in pain reduction and overall tolerability without increased adverse events compared to placebo.^[11] Efficacy in children with IBS has not been established.^[12] It is also used in combination with simethicone to enhance relief from bloating and discomfort in IBS, as fixed-dose formulations improve abdominal pain and flatulence in functional bowel disorders.^[13]^[14]

Dosage and Administration

Mebeverine is administered orally for the symptomatic relief of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).^[7] The standard adult dosage consists of 135 mg tablets taken three times daily, preferably 20 minutes before meals, or 200 mg modified-release capsules taken twice daily in the morning and evening.^[7]^[15] After several weeks of treatment, once the desired therapeutic effect is achieved, the dosage may be gradually reduced according to individual response.^[7]^[16] For the oral suspension formulation (50 mg/5 mL), adults and children aged 10 years and over receive 15 mL (150 mg) three times daily, preferably 20 minutes before meals, with potential dosage reduction after several weeks of effective use; however, efficacy in children has not been established.^[16]^[12] Tablets and modified-release capsules are not recommended for children and adolescents under 18 years due to insufficient data on safety and efficacy.^[7]^[15] Available formulations include 135 mg film-coated tablets, 200 mg modified-release capsules, and 50 mg/5 mL sugar-free oral suspension.^[7]^[15]^[16] All oral forms should be swallowed whole with at least 100 mL of water to ensure proper absorption and avoid the unpleasant taste if chewed; the suspension must be shaken well before use.^[7]^[15]^[16] Treatment is typically short-term for IBS symptom relief during flare-ups, often up to 2 weeks, with discontinuation upon improvement; however, there is no strict limit on duration, and chronic use may require ongoing adjustment under medical supervision.^[17]^[7] If a dose is missed, it should be skipped, and the next dose taken as scheduled without doubling up.^[17]^[7]

Safety Profile

Adverse Effects

Mebeverine is generally well-tolerated, with adverse effects occurring infrequently and typically being mild. Clinical reviews indicate that the incidence of significant side effects is low, and the drug exhibits a favorable safety profile compared to placebo in irritable bowel syndrome treatment. Due to its poor systemic absorption, mebeverine rarely causes anticholinergic effects such as dry mouth or blurred vision. Common adverse effects include hypersensitivity reactions and allergic skin disorders, such as rash, urticaria, exanthema, angioedema, and facial edema. Gastrointestinal disturbances like heartburn, nausea, indigestion, and constipation have also been reported, though these are often mild and transient. Other frequently noted effects encompass dizziness, headache, insomnia, loss of appetite, and tiredness. A decrease in pulse rate has been reported rarely.^[18] Mebeverine can also lead to false-positive results for amphetamines in urine drug screening tests using fluorescence polarization immunoassay, due to cross-reactivity with its metabolites; confirmatory testing with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry is recommended in such cases.^[19] In the event of severe allergic reactions, such as anaphylaxis manifesting as swelling of the face, lips, or tongue, or difficulty breathing, mebeverine should be discontinued immediately, and emergency medical attention sought. Most mild effects resolve without intervention, but persistent symptoms warrant consultation with a healthcare provider.

Contraindications and Precautions

Mebeverine is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to mebeverine hydrochloride or any of its excipients, as this may lead to allergic reactions including angioedema.^[3]^[18] It is also absolutely contraindicated in cases of paralytic ileus, a condition characterized by intestinal paralysis that could be exacerbated by the drug's antispasmodic effects.^[3]^[20] Precautions are advised during pregnancy due to limited clinical data on its safety; it is generally not recommended, particularly in the first trimester, and use in later stages requires a careful risk-benefit assessment by a healthcare provider.^[21]^[18] In breastfeeding, mebeverine is excreted into breast milk in small amounts (less than 10 micrograms per milliliter following a 100 mg dose). UK NHS guidelines consider it usually safe, as it is unlikely to harm the baby, but some sources recommend avoiding unless the potential benefits outweigh the risks to the infant; consult a healthcare provider.^[21]^[18]^[22] For pediatric use, mebeverine is indicated for children aged 10 years and over in some countries like the UK, and may be prescribed for younger children aged 3 years and over under medical supervision. However, some product information states it is not recommended for use in children under 18 due to limited data on safety and efficacy. A 2025 randomized placebo-controlled trial involving children with IBS or functional abdominal pain confirmed mebeverine's tolerability, with adverse effects similar to placebo and no serious events reported.^[3]^[22]^[23] Caution is warranted in patients with severe hepatic or renal impairment, where dosage adjustments or monitoring may be necessary based on theoretical risks of accumulation or altered metabolism.^[18] Similarly, use with care in individuals with cardiac dysrhythmias, such as atrioventricular block or tachycardia, due to potential effects on smooth muscle including cardiac tissue.^[18] Patients with lactose intolerance should be aware that some formulations contain lactose (up to 80 mg per tablet), which may cause gastrointestinal issues.^[18] In the event of overdose, symptoms are typically mild and include central nervous system excitability, such as restlessness or insomnia, along with possible neurological or cardiovascular effects; there is no specific antidote, and management is supportive and symptomatic, including discontinuation of the drug and monitoring vital signs.^[18]^[24] Immediate medical attention is recommended, with contact to a poisons information center for further guidance.^[18]

Pharmacology

Mechanism of Action

Mebeverine functions as a musculotropic antispasmodic agent, exerting a direct relaxing effect on the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract independent of the autonomic nervous system. This primary action allows it to alleviate spasms by targeting the contractile apparatus of smooth muscle cells without broadly interfering with neural pathways.^[5] At the molecular level, mebeverine acts as an antagonist at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, particularly the M3 subtype, which contributes to its inhibition of smooth muscle contraction. Additionally, it modulates calcium ion influx by blocking voltage-operated sodium channels and reducing intracellular calcium accumulation, thereby preventing the calcium-dependent activation of contractile proteins in smooth muscle cells. These interactions occur without strong systemic anticholinergic effects, distinguishing it from agents with broader receptor blockade. The exact mechanism is multifaceted and not fully elucidated, potentially involving phosphodiesterase inhibition, blockade of noradrenaline reuptake, and direct effects on calcium channels in gastrointestinal smooth muscle.^[5]^[7] The drug primarily targets smooth muscle in the colon and intestines, where it reduces hypermotility and spasms while preserving normal peristalsis to a greater extent than non-selective antispasmodics. As a second-generation analog of papaverine, mebeverine demonstrates enhanced potency—approximately three times that of papaverine in blocking intestinal peristalsis in experimental models—coupled with lower anticholinergic activity compared to first-generation agents like dicyclomine. Due to its poor penetration of the blood-brain barrier, mebeverine exhibits no significant central nervous system effects.^[5]^[25]

Pharmacokinetics

Mebeverine exhibits poor systemic absorption following oral administration, with bioavailability of the parent compound estimated at less than 10% due to extensive presystemic hydrolysis.^[26] The drug is primarily intended to act locally within the gastrointestinal tract, where it exerts its antispasmodic effects before significant absorption can occur. Maximum plasma levels of radioactivity from labeled mebeverine are reached 1-3 hours post-dose, reflecting rapid appearance of metabolites rather than the unchanged drug.^[18] No measurable concentrations of intact mebeverine are detectable in plasma after oral dosing, even with attempts to inhibit esterase activity.^[27] Distribution of mebeverine is limited due to its low plasma concentrations, with approximately 75% of the drug binding to human serum albumin when present.^[18] Given the negligible systemic exposure, mebeverine does not cross the blood-brain barrier to a significant extent, contributing to its favorable safety profile with minimal central nervous system effects.^[26] Mebeverine undergoes rapid metabolism primarily through hydrolysis of its ester group by plasma and tissue esterases, yielding veratric acid and mebeverine alcohol as major metabolites; this process occurs extensively during first-pass metabolism and does not involve cytochrome P450 enzymes.^[27] Further metabolites include mebeverine acid, desmethyl mebeverine acid, and desmethyl mebeverine alcohol.^[28] Elimination of mebeverine occurs almost entirely as metabolites, with 95% recovered in urine and minimal fecal excretion.^[18] No unchanged parent drug is excreted in urine. The elimination half-life of active metabolites is approximately 5-6 hours, supporting twice-daily dosing without significant accumulation during chronic use.^[15] Factors influencing pharmacokinetics include food intake, which may slightly delay absorption (e.g., prolonging T_max to about 4.5 hours) but does not alter the overall extent of exposure.^[29] No accumulation is observed with repeated dosing, as confirmed in comparative studies of standard and modified-release formulations.^[30]

Chemistry

Chemical Structure and Properties

Mebeverine, also known as 4-{ethyl[1-(4-methoxyphenyl)propan-2-yl]amino}butyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzoate, has the molecular formula C₂₅H₃₅NO₅ for its free base form.^[1] The hydrochloride salt, which is the most commonly used pharmaceutical form, has the formula C₂₅H₃₆ClNO₅. The molecular weight of the base is 429.56 g/mol, while the hydrochloride salt has a molecular weight of 466.02 g/mol.^[31] These values reflect the compound's composition as an ester derived from 3,4-dimethoxybenzoic acid (veratric acid) and a substituted butanol amine. The chemical structure of mebeverine features a central ester linkage connecting the veratric acid moiety—with its characteristic 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl ring—to a four-carbon butyl chain. This chain is substituted at the 4-position with an ethylamino group further linked to a 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)propan-2-yl substituent, forming a tertiary amine. It contains one chiral center but is typically used as the racemic mixture.^[32] The overall architecture contributes to its lipophilic nature. This ester functionality is key to its physicochemical profile, distinguishing it from related antispasmodic agents. Mebeverine base appears as a white to off-white crystalline powder. It is essentially insoluble in water (approximately 0.0029 mg/mL), but shows good solubility in organic solvents such as ethanol and chloroform. The hydrochloride salt is sparingly soluble in water but highly soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide (≥155 mg/mL). Melting point values for the base vary between reports, with 105–107°C cited from German patent data and 129–131°C from Belgian patent sources; the hydrochloride salt melts at 105–107°C.^[33]^[34]^[35] Under normal storage conditions (2–8°C in an inert atmosphere), mebeverine is chemically stable, with a predicted pKa of approximately 9.5 for the base, indicating weak basicity. The compound's density is estimated at 1.074 g/cm³, supporting its solid-state characteristics.

Metabolism and Excretion

Mebeverine undergoes rapid and complete hydrolysis primarily mediated by esterases, resulting in the formation of veratric acid (3,4-dimethoxybenzoic acid) and mebeverine alcohol as the main initial metabolites.^[27]^[36] This non-cytochrome P450 (CYP)-dependent process occurs extensively during first-pass metabolism in the intestinal mucosa and liver, as well as in plasma, leading to negligible systemic exposure to the parent compound.^[27]^[37] Further metabolism of mebeverine alcohol involves oxidation to mebeverine acid and O-demethylation to form related phenolic derivatives, while veratric acid may undergo additional O-demethylation to vanillic acid, isovanillic acid, and protocatechuic acid.^[38]^[37] These metabolites are predominantly inactive, lacking the antispasmodic activity of the parent drug, and do not undergo enterohepatic recirculation.^[39] Excretion of mebeverine occurs almost entirely via the renal route, with approximately 95% of the dose eliminated as metabolites in the urine within 24 hours and peak excretion rates typically within the first two hours post-dose.^[18]^[40] Less than 1% of unchanged mebeverine is recovered in urine, and biliary or fecal elimination is negligible, accounting for the remaining minor fraction of the dose.^[40] The metabolites, including mebeverine acid (excreted at about 67% of the dose in the first four hours), veratric acid derivatives (totaling around 97.6% recovery of the acid moiety), and alcohol-related compounds (about 5.5% recovery), are primarily eliminated as conjugates.^[37]^[38]^[40] The rapid metabolic clearance of mebeverine, with virtually complete biotransformation and elimination, minimizes the risk of accumulation even with repeated dosing and supports its standard thrice-daily administration regimen, typically taken before meals.^[7]^[30] This pharmacokinetic profile contributes to the drug's favorable safety in chronic use for conditions like irritable bowel syndrome, as systemic levels remain low and metabolites pose no pharmacological burden.^[30]^[18]

History and Society

Development and History

Mebeverine was developed in the early 1960s by Dutch chemists Teunis Kralt, Hendrik Durk Moed, Willem Johannes Asma, and Adolf Lindner at N.V. Philips-Duphar, a pharmaceutical company in Weesp, Netherlands, as a second-generation analog of papaverine aimed at enhancing antispasmodic selectivity for gastrointestinal smooth muscle while minimizing unwanted side effects associated with earlier agents.^[41]^[42] The compound, chemically known as 4-[ethyl-[1-(4-methoxyphenyl)propan-2-yl]amino]butyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzoate, was first synthesized around 1962, with the initial process detailed in British Patent GB1009082A granted in 1965.^[43] This development focused on creating a musculotropic agent that could relieve colonic spasms without the atropine-like anticholinergic effects common in other antispasmodics, thereby improving tolerability for conditions like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).^[41] Key intellectual property included US Patent 3,265,577, filed on October 6, 1965, and issued on August 9, 1966, which covered the method of using mebeverine and its non-toxic acid addition salts (particularly the hydrochloride) in pharmaceutical compositions to treat spasmodic conditions of the colon, such as irritable colon syndrome.^[41] Clinical development began shortly thereafter, with early trials in the 1960s evaluating its efficacy for IBS symptoms; a seminal study by Connell et al. in 1965 assessed its physiological effects on human colonic motility, demonstrating reduced pressure responses to stimuli in both healthy volunteers and IBS patients.^[44] Mebeverine received its first regulatory registration in Europe in 1965, shortly after these initial investigations, marking the start of its clinical availability.^[43] By the 1970s, mebeverine had gained approvals for IBS treatment in multiple European countries and beyond, supported by accumulating trial data from that decade showing symptom relief in abdominal pain and bowel irregularity.^[6] Patent expiration in the mid-1980s led to its transition to generic status, broadening access and enabling widespread production by various manufacturers.^[41] Research evolved significantly over the subsequent decades; early perceptions in the 2000s, based on meta-analyses of trials up to 2009, often viewed mebeverine as comparable to placebo for global IBS improvement despite good tolerability.^[4] However, more recent systematic reviews from the 2010s and 2020s, incorporating additional randomized controlled trials, have reaffirmed its efficacy for reducing abdominal pain and overall symptoms, positioning it as a safe first-line antispasmodic option in clinical guidelines such as those from NICE and the British Society of Gastroenterology.^[6]

Availability and Legal Status

Mebeverine is classified as a prescription medication in most countries, including those in the European Union, the United Kingdom, and Australia, where it requires a healthcare provider's authorization for purchase and use.^[45]^[40]^[29] In the UK, it is available over-the-counter from pharmacies for individuals previously diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome, but prescription status applies otherwise.^[45] In certain Asian countries, such as India, lower-dose formulations may be obtained over-the-counter without a prescription for symptomatic relief of gastrointestinal spasms.^[46]^[47] As a generic drug, mebeverine has been widely available since the 1960s following its initial registration, with patents long expired, enabling production by multiple manufacturers globally.^[48] It is marketed under various brand names, including Duspatalin by Abbott Laboratories, Colofac, and Mebaspa, as well as combination products like Spasmindon (mebeverine with simethicone).^[8]^[49]^[50] Mebeverine holds marketing approvals in over 50 countries worldwide, including Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, and many others, facilitating broad international access for treating irritable bowel syndrome and related conditions.^[50]^[4] However, it is not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, where alternative antispasmodics are typically recommended for irritable bowel syndrome management.^[50] Generic formulations of mebeverine remain inexpensive, with costs typically ranging from $0.50 to $1.00 per 135 mg tablet depending on the region and supplier, making it an affordable option in accessible markets.^[51] As of November 2025, no widespread global supply shortages have been reported, though localized disruptions, such as in Australia for certain dosage forms, have occurred periodically.^[52]

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