2009
2009 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, dominated by responses to the global financial crisis that began in 2008, including massive government bailouts and fiscal stimulus efforts amid contracting economies and surging unemployment rates worldwide.[1][2] In the United States, Barack Obama was inaugurated as the 44th president on January 15, becoming the first African American to hold the office, amid high expectations for addressing the recession through policies like the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act.[3][4] The year also saw the emergence of the H1N1 influenza virus, with the World Health Organization declaring it a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in April and a pandemic in June, leading to widespread vaccination campaigns and economic disruptions from travel restrictions and healthcare strains.[5] Technologically, the Bitcoin network activated with the mining of its genesis block on January 3, implementing the peer-to-peer electronic cash system outlined in Satoshi Nakamoto's prior whitepaper, marking an early step toward decentralized digital currency.[6] Other notable developments included the "Miracle on the Hudson" emergency landing of US Airways Flight 1549 on January 15, saving all aboard, and the December Copenhagen climate conference, which yielded the non-binding Copenhagen Accord committing major emitters to limit global warming but failing to secure enforceable targets amid procedural disputes.[7] Controversies arose from events like the October Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Obama for diplomatic aspirations rather than concrete achievements, and ongoing bailouts of institutions such as General Motors, which filed for bankruptcy in June before restructuring under government oversight.[8][7]Economic and Financial Developments
Continuation of the Great Recession
In the United States, the Great Recession continued into 2009 with severe economic contraction, as real gross domestic product declined by 2.6 percent for the full year, following sharper drops in prior quarters; the first quarter saw an annualized contraction of 5.4 percent, the most severe since the 1940s.[1][9] This downturn reflected ongoing deleveraging in financial markets, reduced consumer spending, and inventory liquidation, with manufacturing output falling 20 percent from its peak. Globally, the recession synchronized declines across advanced economies, marking the first worldwide GDP contraction since World War II, with output in the eurozone shrinking 4.5 percent and Japan experiencing a 5.4 percent drop.[10][11] The labor market deteriorated markedly, with the U.S. unemployment rate rising from 7.8 percent in January to a peak of 10.0 percent in October, as nonfarm payrolls shed approximately 5.1 million jobs over the year.[12][13] Underemployment, including part-time workers seeking full-time roles, exceeded 16 percent, exacerbating income losses estimated at 8 percent for median families. In Europe, unemployment rates climbed above 9 percent in countries like Spain and Ireland, while emerging markets faced capital outflows and trade collapses, with export-dependent economies such as Germany and South Korea seeing industrial production plummet over 20 percent.[14] The housing sector remained in crisis, with foreclosure filings reaching a record 2.8 million properties nationwide, a 21 percent increase from 2008, driven by subprime loan defaults and falling home prices that erased $7 trillion in household equity since 2006.[15] Bank failures accelerated, with the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation closing 140 institutions, the highest annual total since 1992, as troubled assets from real estate loans overwhelmed smaller regional banks.[16] Credit conditions tightened further, with lending to businesses contracting 5 percent, hindering investment and prolonging the slowdown despite central bank liquidity measures.[1]Government Interventions and Bailouts
In response to the ongoing financial crisis, the United States government under President Barack Obama enacted the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) on February 17, 2009, allocating $787 billion over ten years for fiscal stimulus measures including tax cuts for individuals and businesses, extended unemployment benefits, infrastructure investments, and aid to state and local governments to avert deeper economic contraction.[17] [18] The package comprised approximately $288 billion in tax relief, $267 billion in direct spending on programs like Medicaid expansion and education, and $232 billion in targeted investments such as renewable energy and broadband infrastructure, with proponents arguing it preserved or created millions of jobs amid rising unemployment reaching 10% by October 2009.[19] [18] The Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), authorized in October 2008 with $700 billion, saw significant disbursements in 2009, with $330 billion allocated by June, primarily $250 billion to banking institutions via capital injections to restore liquidity and prevent systemic collapse following failures like Lehman Brothers.[20] [21] Treasury committed funds to major banks including $45 billion to Bank of America and Citigroup, alongside guarantees on toxic assets, though subsequent repayments and sales yielded a net cost estimated at under $500 billion on a fair-value basis when accounting for all crisis interventions.[22] [20] The automotive sector received targeted bailouts under TARP's expansion, with Chrysler filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on April 30, 2009, after receiving $4.5 billion in prior aid, followed by a $1.9 billion debtor-in-possession loan and partnership with Fiat, while General Motors entered bankruptcy on June 1, 2009, securing $30.1 billion in restructuring support that facilitated government ownership stakes up to 61% in the restructured entity.[23] Overall, auto interventions totaled $79.7 billion, with recoveries of $70.4 billion by 2014, resulting in a $9.3 billion taxpayer loss, amid conditions mandating wage concessions, plant closures, and dealer network reductions affecting over 2,000 dealerships.[24] Internationally, governments coordinated stimulus efforts, with G-20 nations announcing packages totaling $692 billion for 2009, equivalent to 1.4% of combined GDP, including China's 4 trillion RMB ($586 billion) investment-led program focused on infrastructure, housing, and exports to cushion export declines.[25] Other measures included the United Kingdom's £20 billion fiscal boost and expanded bank recapitalizations, alongside European Central Bank liquidity provisions, though varying national debt levels constrained unified action.[26] These interventions aimed to restore credit flows and demand but faced scrutiny over long-term fiscal burdens and moral hazard risks for financial institutions.[27]Recovery Signals and Criticisms
The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) later determined that the U.S. recession reached its trough in June 2009, marking the official end of the contraction phase that began in December 2007, based on indicators including real GDP, employment, industrial production, and wholesale-retail sales.[28] Earlier in the year, financial markets showed signs of stabilization, with the S&P 500 Index closing at its recession low of 676.53 on March 9, 2009, before beginning a sustained rally that reflected improving investor confidence amid government interventions and easing monetary policy.[29] Real GDP growth turned positive in the third quarter of 2009, expanding at a 3.5% annualized rate after contractions of 6.4% in the first quarter and 0.7% in the second, signaling a shift from decline to modest expansion driven by inventory rebuilding and fiscal support.[30] However, labor market recovery lagged, with the unemployment rate continuing to rise to a peak of 10% in October 2009, highlighting a "jobless recovery" pattern where output rebounded before employment.[10] Criticisms of the recovery efforts centered on the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), the $787 billion stimulus package signed in February 2009, which economists like those at the Heritage Foundation argued failed to meet its own projections for unemployment reduction and GDP boost, instead contributing to higher deficits without proportionally accelerating private-sector growth.[31] Detractors, including analysts from the Cato Institute, contended that ARRA's emphasis on public spending and transfers inefficiently allocated resources, favoring politically connected sectors over market-driven recovery and exacerbating long-term debt burdens without addressing structural issues like housing market distortions.[32] Bailouts under the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), extended into 2009, drew fire for creating moral hazard by shielding financial institutions from losses, incentivizing future risk-taking as executives anticipated government backstops, a concern echoed in economic analyses of post-crisis banking behavior.[33] While some economists, such as Alan Blinder, viewed moral hazard as a necessary tradeoff to avert systemic collapse, critics maintained that these interventions distorted incentives and prolonged malinvestments from the pre-crisis bubble, contributing to the anemic pace of the subsequent expansion.[34][35]Political Events
United States Politics
Barack Obama was inaugurated as the 44th President of the United States on January 20, 2009, becoming the first African American to hold the office.[36] The ceremony drew an estimated 1.8 million attendees to the National Mall, marking a significant moment of national transition following the 2008 financial crisis and George W. Bush's presidency.[36] Early in his term, Obama prioritized economic recovery, signing the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act into law on February 17, 2009, which authorized approximately $787 billion in spending and tax cuts aimed at countering the Great Recession through infrastructure investments, unemployment benefits, and aid to states.[37] On May 26, 2009, Obama nominated federal appeals court judge Sonia Sotomayor to replace retiring Justice David Souter on the Supreme Court.[38] Sotomayor, the first Latina nominated to the Court, underwent Senate confirmation hearings amid debates over her judicial philosophy and past rulings, including criticisms from some Republicans regarding her "wise Latina" comment in a 2001 speech.[39] The Senate confirmed her on August 6, 2009, by a 68-31 vote, with nine Republicans joining Democrats in support.[40] Public opposition to Obama's economic and fiscal policies coalesced into the Tea Party movement, which gained traction through grassroots protests beginning in early 2009, particularly against the stimulus package's scale and perceived government overreach.[41] Tax Day rallies on April 15, 2009, occurred in over 750 cities, drawing thousands who decried rising deficits and federal intervention in the economy, echoing the Boston Tea Party's symbolism of resistance to taxation without representation.[41] The movement, largely decentralized and conservative-leaning, amplified calls for fiscal restraint and limited government, influencing Republican politics and foreshadowing midterm electoral shifts. Healthcare reform emerged as a central legislative battle, with Obama and congressional Democrats advancing proposals to expand coverage and control costs amid heated public debates. Town hall meetings throughout the summer of 2009 featured vocal protests against provisions like a public insurance option and government involvement, fueling accusations of "death panels" from critics.[42] The House passed the Affordable Health Care for America Act (H.R. 3962) on November 7, 2009, by a 220-215 vote, while the Senate approved its version on December 24, 2009, by 60-39, overcoming a filibuster but highlighting partisan divides as no Republicans supported either bill. These efforts laid groundwork for the eventual Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in 2010, though implementation faced immediate legal and political challenges.International Politics and Conflicts
In 2009, the War in Afghanistan intensified as U.S. President Barack Obama conducted a strategic review, culminating in a December 1 announcement of an additional 30,000 American troops to bolster counterinsurgency efforts against the Taliban and al-Qaeda, aiming to reverse deteriorating security conditions and enable Afghan forces to assume greater responsibility.[43] This surge reflected ongoing NATO commitments, with troop levels reaching approximately 37,000 U.S. personnel at the year's start, focused on stabilizing key provinces amid rising insurgent attacks.[43] The Iraq War saw a phased transition under the U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement, with American combat brigades withdrawing from urban areas by June 30, marking the end of the formal combat mission, though security operations continued and full withdrawal was slated for 2011.[44] Globally, 17 major armed conflicts persisted in 16 locations, predominantly intrastate disputes over government control or territory, with Asia hosting the most active in 2009 and Africa leading cumulatively over the decade.[45] In the Middle East, Israel's Operation Cast Lead concluded with a unilateral ceasefire on January 18 following a three-week campaign in Gaza against Hamas rocket fire, resulting in over 1,000 Palestinian deaths and 13 Israeli fatalities, amid international calls for investigation into alleged war crimes on both sides.[7] Iran's presidential election on June 12 sparked widespread protests after incumbent Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was declared the winner with 62% of the vote, with opposition leader Mir-Hossein Mousavi alleging fraud; the ensuing Green Movement demonstrations, met with government crackdowns killing dozens and arresting thousands, highlighted deep domestic divisions and drew global scrutiny over electoral integrity.[46] Asia witnessed the conclusive defeat of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in Sri Lanka on May 18, when government forces killed LTTE leader Velupillai Prabhakaran, ending a 26-year civil war that claimed tens of thousands of lives, though the final offensive drew criticism for civilian casualties estimated in the thousands. North Korea escalated tensions by conducting a long-range rocket launch on April 5 and a second nuclear test on May 25, prompting UN Security Council condemnation and tightened sanctions, while Pyongyang withdrew from six-party talks.[7] In Latin America, Honduras faced a constitutional crisis after military forces ousted President Manuel Zelaya on June 28, citing his push for a referendum to potentially extend term limits; the interim government under Roberto Micheletti defended the action as upholding the constitution, but the Organization of American States suspended Honduras and demanded Zelaya's reinstatement, leading to prolonged diplomatic isolation.[47] Diplomatically, Obama pursued a "reset" with Russia, meeting President Dmitry Medvedev in July to advance arms control, and delivered a Prague speech on April 5 outlining a vision for global nuclear disarmament; these efforts earned him the Nobel Peace Prize on October 9 for fostering multilateral dialogue and reducing international tensions.[48][49]Health and Environmental Issues
H1N1 Influenza Pandemic
The 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic, also known as swine flu, involved a novel reassortant influenza A virus containing genes from swine, avian, and human lineages, which emerged through triple reassortment in swine populations.[50] The virus was first detected in humans in Mexico in early March 2009, with laboratory confirmation of cases in Veracruz state by April 12, and independently in California, United States, on April 15.[51] [52] On April 25, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a public health emergency of international concern, followed by pandemic phase 6 declaration on June 11, marking the first influenza pandemic in 41 years.[53] The virus spread rapidly via human-to-human transmission, primarily through respiratory droplets, affecting individuals across all age groups but disproportionately impacting younger adults and children due to limited pre-existing immunity.[54] By August 2010, when WHO transitioned to post-pandemic phase, the virus had caused laboratory-confirmed cases in over 214 countries and territories.[55] In the United States, from April 2009 to April 2010, estimates indicated 60.8 million symptomatic cases (range: 43.3–89.3 million), 274,304 hospitalizations (range: 195,321–402,719), and 12,469 deaths (range: 8,870–18,300).[54] Globally, WHO reported at least 18,449 laboratory-confirmed deaths by early 2010, though modeling estimates from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) placed total pandemic-related respiratory and cardiovascular deaths at 151,700–575,400, with H1N1 attributable to approximately 284,000 deaths.[56] [57] Mortality was lower than in prior pandemics like 1918, with a case-fatality rate estimated at 0.02–0.4%, but complications such as pneumonia and secondary bacterial infections were common, particularly in obese individuals and those with underlying conditions.[55] Public health responses emphasized surveillance, antiviral stockpiling, and vaccination campaigns. The CDC isolated the virus by April 24, 2009, enabling rapid candidate vaccine development; monovalent H1N1 vaccines, produced via egg-based methods similar to seasonal influenza vaccines, became available in October 2009 in many countries.[54] Clinical trials demonstrated immunogenicity with a single 15-microgram dose in adults, yielding seroconversion rates of 76–96%, and vaccine effectiveness against medically attended acute respiratory illness due to H1N1 reached 54% (95% CI: 46–61%) overall, with higher protection in fully vaccinated children.[58] [59] Adverse events mirrored those of seasonal vaccines, primarily mild injection-site reactions and fever.[60] Antivirals like oseltamivir were widely used for treatment and prophylaxis, reducing severe outcomes when administered early. The pandemic declaration drew criticism for potentially inflating perceived severity and prompting excessive pharmaceutical spending, with some attributing WHO's phase 6 upgrade to influence from industry ties, though empirical data confirmed sustained global transmission justifying the alert under existing criteria lacking explicit severity thresholds.[61] [62] Retrospective reviews noted the response's successes in vaccine scaling but highlighted gaps in equitable access for developing nations and overestimation of initial lethality, which fueled public skepticism despite the virus's verifiable burden exceeding seasonal influenza norms.[63] By mid-2010, H1N1 integrated into seasonal circulation, prompting trivalent vaccines thereafter.[64]Climategate and Climate Data Controversies
In November 2009, a hacker or whistleblower accessed and publicly released over 1,000 emails and documents from the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) at the University of East Anglia, a key institution in global temperature data compilation and climate modeling.[65][66] The files, spanning 1996 to 2009, involved correspondence among prominent climatologists including CRU director Phil Jones and Penn State professor Michael Mann, and were posted on climate skeptic websites shortly before the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen.[67] Authenticity of the emails was widely accepted by both proponents and critics of mainstream climate science, with no credible evidence of forgery emerging despite initial skepticism from some involved parties.[66][68] The leaked materials fueled accusations of data manipulation, suppression of dissenting research, and evasion of transparency obligations. A notable email from Jones in 1999 referenced applying "Mike's Nature trick" to "hide the decline," referring to a graphical technique used by Mann in a 1998 Nature paper and a 2000 World Meteorological Organization report, where post-1960 tree-ring proxy data—showing a divergence from rising instrumental temperatures (the "divergence problem")—were substituted with actual thermometer records to produce a seamless upward trend in a millennial temperature reconstruction.[69][70] This method, while defended by some as a standard presentation choice to emphasize reliable modern data over unreliable proxies, was criticized for not clearly disclosing the splice, potentially misleading non-experts about proxy reliability in supporting claims of unprecedented modern warming.[71] Other emails discussed withholding data from skeptics, pressuring journal editors to reject critical papers (e.g., attempts to block a statistical critique of Mann's "hockey stick" reconstruction), and deleting emails to avoid Freedom of Information requests, raising concerns about compliance with UK data-sharing laws.[72][73] Investigations followed, including UK parliamentary inquiries and independent reviews. The 2010 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee report found no evidence of data falsification but criticized CRU scientists for defensiveness and inadequate communication, recommending better data archiving.[73] The Muir Russell review, commissioned by the university, concluded scientists "did not subvert the peer review process" and upheld the robustness of CRU's temperature data, though it faulted openness in methods.[74] Eight further probes, including by the UK Information Commissioner's Office and Penn State, similarly cleared individuals of dishonesty, attributing issues to "poor practice" rather than misconduct.[75] Critics, including statistician Steve McIntyre—who had long sought CRU data via FOI requests—argued these probes were narrowly scoped, avoiding substantive scientific reanalysis and relying on self-reported assurances from the same community with potential conflicts of interest due to shared funding and institutional ties in climate research.[76] The affair highlighted tensions over data access in climate science, where CRU's datasets underpin IPCC reports, yet raw data and code were not routinely shared, fostering perceptions of opacity amid high-stakes policy implications.[77] It prompted temporary dips in public trust in climate science, with polls showing increased U.S. skepticism post-leak, though long-term belief in anthropogenic warming held steady per Gallup tracking.[78] No prosecutions for hacking occurred, and a 2011 release of additional emails yielded few new revelations.[79] While defenders from institutions like the Union of Concerned Scientists dismissed the emails as out-of-context venting by overworked researchers, the episode underscored vulnerabilities in scientific gatekeeping, particularly in fields with politicized consensus dynamics and resistance to external audit.[80][70]Copenhagen Climate Summit Outcomes
The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, known as COP15, convened from December 7 to 18 in Copenhagen, Denmark, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), with the objective of forging a binding international treaty to succeed the Kyoto Protocol by establishing enforceable greenhouse gas emission reduction targets and adaptation funding mechanisms. Attended by representatives from over 190 countries, including heads of state from approximately 115 nations such as U.S. President Barack Obama and Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, the summit featured protracted negotiations marked by divisions between developed and developing nations over responsibility for historical emissions, financial transfers, and verification of commitments.[81] Tensions escalated in the final days, with small island states and groups like Bolivia and Venezuela staging walkouts in protest of perceived insufficient ambition from major emitters.[82] The conference failed to produce a legally binding agreement, as consensus eluded the plenary session amid objections from several parties. Instead, on December 18, a non-binding political document termed the Copenhagen Accord was drafted in closed-door talks among the United States, China, India, Brazil, and South Africa, and subsequently "noted" rather than formally adopted by the COP.[83] The Accord recognized the scientific basis for limiting global temperature rise to 2°C above pre-industrial levels, called for developed countries to implement economy-wide emission reduction targets for 2020 against 1990 or 2005 baselines, and urged developing countries to pursue nationally appropriate mitigation actions subject to international consultation and analysis for transparency.[83] It pledged $30 billion in short-term "fast-start" financing from developed to developing nations for 2010–2012, scaling to $100 billion annually by 2020 through public and private sources, and established a Copenhagen Green Climate Fund as an operating entity under the UNFCCC financial mechanism.[83] By January 2010, 114 parties had associated themselves with the Accord, including major economies committing voluntary pledges such as the U.S. targeting a 17% reduction below 2005 levels by 2020 and China aiming for a 40–45% intensity reduction from 2005 levels.[84] Immediate reactions highlighted the Accord's limitations, with environmental advocates and analysts criticizing its lack of enforceability, vague verification provisions—particularly contentious between the U.S. and China—and insufficient emission cuts projected to exceed the 2°C threshold based on submitted pledges.[82] [85] Developing nations decried the funding as inadequate relative to adaptation needs, while some observers noted a breakthrough in securing mitigation commitments from emerging economies previously exempt under Kyoto.[86] UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon described it as an "essential beginning" for global cooperation, though procedural opacity and power imbalances favoring major emitters drew accusations of undermining multilateralism.[87] The outcomes deferred binding obligations to future COP meetings, reflecting persistent geopolitical barriers to consensus on causal attribution of climate impacts and equitable burden-sharing.[88]Science, Technology, and Innovation
Key Technological Advances
The Bitcoin network commenced operations on January 3, 2009, when its pseudonymous creator, Satoshi Nakamoto, mined the genesis block, establishing the world's first decentralized cryptocurrency protocol based on blockchain technology for peer-to-peer electronic cash transactions without intermediaries.[89] The first Bitcoin software client was released on January 9, 2009, enabling initial mining and transfers, with the inaugural transaction occurring on January 12 between Nakamoto and developer Hal Finney.[90] This innovation laid foundational principles for distributed ledger systems, though adoption remained limited in 2009 amid the global financial crisis. Apple introduced the iPhone 3GS on June 19, 2009, featuring a 3-megapixel camera capable of video recording, a faster 600 MHz processor, voice control, and improved 3G connectivity, which accelerated the mainstream integration of smartphones as multifunctional computing devices.[91] Concurrently, Google's Android platform advanced with the release of version 1.5 Cupcake in April 2009, incorporating on-screen keyboards, auto-rotation, widgets, and video recording support, fostering greater developer ecosystem growth and competition in mobile operating systems.[92] Microsoft launched Windows 7 on October 22, 2009, delivering enhanced stability, touch-screen support via multitouch gestures, Aero Snap for efficient window resizing, and reduced resource demands compared to Windows Vista, achieving over 100 million licenses sold within its first six months.[91] Microsoft also debuted the Bing search engine on June 1, 2009, emphasizing improved relevance through algorithmic refinements like vertical search integration for images, videos, and maps.[92] These developments underscored 2009's emphasis on refined user interfaces and accessible computing power amid economic recovery efforts.Scientific and Space Milestones
The Kepler Space Telescope, designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets via the transit method, was launched by NASA on March 6 aboard a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral, marking a pivotal advancement in exoplanet surveys with its photometer capable of monitoring over 150,000 stars simultaneously. On May 14, the European Space Agency's Herschel Space Observatory and Planck spacecraft were launched together on an Ariane 5 rocket from French Guiana; Herschel, equipped with the largest telescope ever flown in space at 3.5 meters in diameter, targeted far-infrared and submillimeter observations of star formation and galaxy evolution, while Planck aimed to map cosmic microwave background fluctuations with unprecedented precision to test inflationary cosmology. NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) launched on June 18 via an Atlas V rocket, entering lunar orbit to produce high-resolution maps of the Moon's surface, identify safe landing sites, and assess resources for future human missions, with its seven instruments including a Lyman-Alpha Mapping Imager and Diviner Lunar Radiometer revealing polar hydrogen concentrations suggestive of water ice. The final Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, STS-125 Atlantis (May 11–24), installed the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph and Wide Field Camera 3, repaired the Advanced Camera for Surveys, and replaced batteries and gyroscopes, extending Hubble's operational life and enabling deeper observations of distant galaxies and exoplanet atmospheres. On September 10, CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC) achieved its first successful circulation of proton beams at 3.5 TeV per beam, following magnet quench repairs, with initial collisions at 7 TeV total center-of-mass energy occurring on November 20, facilitating searches for the Higgs boson and supersymmetric particles under controlled high-energy conditions. The CoRoT-7b exoplanet, the first discovered with a rocky composition akin to terrestrial planets, was confirmed on February 3 by the French-led CoRoT satellite team, orbiting its star at 0.017 AU with a mass approximately 5 Earths and radius 1.7 Earths, providing early evidence of super-Earths in close orbits despite tidal heating challenges. NASA's LCROSS mission, launched with the Centaur upper stage impacting Cabeus crater on October 9, spectroscopically detected water vapor and hydroxyl signatures in the ejecta plume via trailing shepherd spacecraft, confirming lunar polar water ice deposits at concentrations up to 5.6% by weight in shadowed regions, bolstering prospects for in-situ resource utilization. These events underscored 2009's emphasis on empirical validation through instrumentation, with data from LRO and LCROSS directly informing lunar resource models via reflectance and neutron spectrometry.Culture, Society, and Entertainment
Major Cultural Events
The death of Michael Jackson on June 25, 2009, from cardiac arrest induced by acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication administered by his personal physician, prompted global tributes attended by millions and a surge in music sales exceeding 35 million albums worldwide in the ensuing months.[93] This event underscored Jackson's enduring influence on pop music, dance, and visual performance, with memorial concerts and documentaries amplifying his legacy amid ongoing debates over his personal life.[94] James Cameron's Avatar, released December 18, 2009, pioneered advanced motion-capture and stereoscopic 3D filmmaking, achieving a global box office of $2.78 billion and setting records for highest-grossing film at the time. The film's immersive Pandora world and themes of environmentalism and indigenous resistance influenced visual effects standards and sparked discussions on technological escapism in cinema.[95] At the MTV Video Music Awards on September 13, 2009, Kanye West ascended the stage during Taylor Swift's acceptance speech for Best Female Video, declaring Beyoncé Knowles should have won, an interruption that ignited immediate backlash, social media frenzy, and a protracted celebrity feud amplified by West's subsequent apology on NBC's The Jay Leno Show.[96] Susan Boyle's audition for the third series of Britain's Got Talent, aired April 11, 2009, featured her rendition of "I Dreamed a Dream" from Les Misérables, amassing over 100 million online views within weeks and subverting audience expectations based on her unassuming appearance, thereby highlighting viral media's role in talent discovery.[97] In literature, Kathryn Stockett's The Help, published February 10, 2009, sold more than 10 million copies by year's end, depicting African American domestic workers in 1960s Mississippi and prompting conversations on race relations through its narrative focus on personal testimonies. Hilary Mantel's Wolf Hall, released October 2009, earned critical acclaim for its portrayal of Thomas Cromwell's rise under Henry VIII, securing the Man Booker Prize and revitalizing interest in Tudor-era historical fiction.[98]Sports Achievements and Events
In American football, the Pittsburgh Steelers defeated the Arizona Cardinals 27–23 in Super Bowl XLIII on February 1 at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida, earning the franchise's sixth NFL title with a last-minute touchdown pass from Ben Roethlisberger to Santonio Holmes.[99] In the National Basketball Association, the Los Angeles Lakers won their 15th championship by beating the Orlando Magic 4–1 in the Finals from June 4 to 14, with Kobe Bryant earning Finals MVP honors after averaging 32.4 points per game.[99][99] In Major League Baseball, the New York Yankees claimed their 27th World Series title by defeating the Philadelphia Phillies 4–2 in the series concluding on November 4, highlighted by Hideki Matsui's six RBIs in Game 6.[99][100] The National Hockey League's Stanley Cup went to the Pittsburgh Penguins, who overcame the Detroit Red Wings 4–3 in the Finals ending June 12, with Evgeni Malkin securing playoff MVP.[101] In tennis, Roger Federer achieved career Grand Slam completion by winning his first French Open men's singles title on June 7, defeating Robin Söderling 6–1, 7–6, 6–4, after Söderling's upset of Rafael Nadal; Federer then claimed a record 15th major at Wimbledon on July 5, outlasting Andy Roddick 5–7, 7–6, 7–6, 3–6, 16–14 in a 77-game fifth set.[102] Nadal captured his first Australian Open crown on February 1, beating Federer 7–5, 3–6, 7–6, 3–6, 6–2, while Juan Martín del Potro won the US Open on September 14 over Federer 3–6, 7–6, 4–6, 7–6, 6–2 for his lone major.[103] Association football saw FC Barcelona defeat Manchester United 2–0 in the UEFA Champions League final on May 27 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, with goals from Samuel Eto'o and Pedro Rodríguez.[103] Brazil won the FIFA Confederations Cup on June 28, rallying to beat the United States 3–2 in the final at Ellis Park Stadium in Johannesburg, Luís Fabiano scoring twice.[102] In athletics at the World Championships in Berlin from August 15–23, Usain Bolt set world records in the 100 meters (9.58 seconds on August 16) and 200 meters (19.19 seconds on August 20), becoming the first to break both in the same major meet.[104] In Formula One, Brawn GP's Jenson Button clinched the drivers' championship on October 18 at the Brazilian Grand Prix, winning eight of the first 15 races in the team's debut season after acquiring Honda's assets.[103] Cycling's Tour de France concluded on July 26 with Alberto Contador victorious for the fourth time, 4 minutes 11 seconds ahead of runner-up Andy Schleck, amid Lance Armstrong's return to third place.[102]Awards and Recognitions
Nobel Prizes
The Nobel Prizes in 2009 recognized achievements across six categories, with awards announced between October 5 and 12 by the respective committees in Stockholm and Oslo. The prizes, each valued at 10 million Swedish kronor, highlighted advances in biological mechanisms, optical technologies, molecular structures, literary depictions of oppression, diplomatic efforts, and economic governance of resources. In Physiology or Medicine, the prize was awarded jointly to Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider, and Jack W. Szostak for their discovery of telomeres and the enzyme telomerase, which protect chromosomes during cell division and address aging-related degradation.[105] Blackburn and Greider identified telomerase in the late 1980s, while Szostak demonstrated telomere function in protecting genetic material.[106] The Physics prize was divided: one half to Charles K. Kao for foundational work on low-loss optical fibers enabling long-distance light transmission for telecommunications, conducted in 1966 at Standard Telecommunication Laboratories.[107] The other half was shared by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith for inventing the charge-coupled device (CCD) in 1969 at Bell Labs, revolutionizing digital imaging in cameras and telescopes.[107] In Chemistry, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz, and Ada E. Yonath shared the prize for studies on the ribosome's structure and function using X-ray crystallography, elucidating the molecular machine that translates genetic code into proteins.[108] Yonath pioneered ribosome crystallization in the 1980s, with Steitz and Ramakrishnan providing high-resolution maps in the 2000s.[109] The Literature prize went to Herta Müller, a Romanian-born German author, for works that poetically and candidly portray the disoriented souls under totalitarian regimes, drawing from her experiences resisting censorship in communist Romania.[110] The Peace Prize was awarded to Barack H. Obama, then U.S. President for less than nine months, for his efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and foster multilateral cooperation amid global challenges like nuclear proliferation.[111] The decision drew widespread criticism for prematurity, with the Nobel secretary later expressing regret that it failed to spur hoped-for progress, and Obama himself acknowledging discomfort at joining past laureates' ranks without comparable achievements.[112][113] The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences was split between Elinor Ostrom, the first woman to receive it, for analyzing economic governance of common-pool resources through field studies showing sustainable community management without privatization or centralization; and Oliver E. Williamson for clarifying how transaction costs influence organizational boundaries between markets and hierarchies.[114]| Category | Laureate(s) | Key Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Physiology or Medicine | Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider, Jack W. Szostak | Telomeres and telomerase discovery[105] |
| Physics | Charles K. Kao; Willard S. Boyle, George E. Smith | Optical fibers; CCD invention[107] |
| Chemistry | Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz, Ada E. Yonath | Ribosome structure and function[108] |
| Literature | Herta Müller | Poetic prose on totalitarian landscapes[110] |
| Peace | Barack H. Obama | Diplomatic strengthening efforts[111] |
| Economic Sciences | Elinor Ostrom; Oliver E. Williamson | Commons governance; transaction costs[114] |