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Mesothelin

Mesothelin is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored glycoprotein that serves as a cell surface antigen, primarily expressed on mesothelial cells lining the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum.^[1] Originally identified in 1992 as a differentiation antigen associated with mesotheliomas and ovarian carcinomas, it is encoded by the MSLN gene on chromosome 16p13.3 and plays a role in cell adhesion and signaling.^[1] In normal physiology, its expression is restricted to these mesothelial tissues, where it contributes to maintaining epithelial integrity, though its precise endogenous function remains partially elusive.^[2] The protein is synthesized as a 69–71 kDa precursor that undergoes furin-mediated cleavage to yield a 31 kDa soluble fragment known as megakaryocyte potentiating factor (MPF) and a 40 kDa membrane-bound mature mesothelin, which anchors to the cell surface via GPI linkage.^[3] Structurally, mature mesothelin features a compact, right-handed superhelical domain composed of 24 short α-helices arranged in nine layered ARM/HEAT-like repeats, stabilized by disulfide bonds and four N-linked glycosylation sites that enhance its stability and shedding.^[1] This shedding produces a soluble form detectable in serum, which has diagnostic potential in certain malignancies.^[2] In cancer biology, mesothelin is markedly overexpressed in aggressive tumors, including >90% of mesotheliomas, ~85–95% of ovarian and pancreatic adenocarcinomas, and subsets of lung and gastric cancers, where it promotes tumor progression through enhanced cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis.^[3] It facilitates peritoneal dissemination by binding to the mucin MUC16/CA-125 on tumor cells, activating pro-survival pathways such as NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, and ERK1/2, and conferring resistance to chemotherapy agents like paclitaxel.^[2] Genetic polymorphisms in MSLN have been linked to increased cancer risk and poor prognosis in some cohorts, underscoring its oncogenic role.^[3] Due to its restricted normal expression and high tumor specificity, mesothelin has emerged as a prime target for anticancer therapies, including monoclonal antibodies (e.g., amatuximab/MORAb-009), immunotoxins (e.g., SS1P), and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies, with multiple agents advancing through clinical trials for mesothelioma and pancreatic cancer.^[1] These approaches leverage antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and blockade of mesothelin-MUC16 interactions to inhibit tumor growth, though challenges like antigen shedding and heterogeneous expression persist.^[2] Ongoing research focuses on combination strategies to enhance efficacy and overcome resistance.^[3]

Discovery and Molecular Structure

Discovery

Mesothelin was first identified in 1992 by researchers at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) through the development of a monoclonal antibody, K1, generated by immunizing BALB/c mice with human ovarian carcinoma cells. This antibody specifically recognized a 40-kDa glycosylated antigen on the cell surface of ovarian cancers and normal mesothelial cells lining the pleura, peritoneum, and pericardium. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that the K1 antigen was expressed on normal mesothelium but absent from most other normal adult tissues, highlighting its potential as a differentiation marker. The molecular cloning of the mesothelin gene (MSLN) was achieved in 1996 by Kai Chang and Ira Pastan at the NCI, using a cDNA expression library derived from the ovarian carcinoma cell line OVCAR-3.^[4] They screened the library with the K1 antibody, isolating a full-length cDNA encoding a 69-kDa precursor protein that undergoes proteolytic processing and glycosylation to produce the mature 40-kDa mesothelin antigen.^[5] Northern blot analysis confirmed MSLN mRNA expression in normal mesothelium and various cancers, consistent with the antibody's reactivity pattern.^[5] These foundational studies by Chang, Pastan, and colleagues at the NCI established mesothelin as a cell surface glycoprotein of interest in mesothelial biology and oncology, paving the way for subsequent research.^[4]

Gene and Protein Structure

The MSLN gene, which encodes mesothelin, is located on the short arm of human chromosome 16 at position 16p13.3.^[6] It spans approximately 8.1 kb of genomic DNA and consists of 18 exons, producing multiple transcript variants through alternative splicing.^[6] The predominant transcript, NM_005823.6, encodes a preproprotein precursor of 622 amino acids with a predicted molecular weight of approximately 71 kDa.^[7] This precursor undergoes furin-mediated proteolytic processing at residue R295, yielding an N-terminal megakaryocyte-potentiating factor (MPF) of about 31 kDa (residues 1–295) and a C-terminal mesothelin fragment of approximately 40 kDa (residues 296–622).^[7]^[8] The mature mesothelin protein is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored glycoprotein tethered to the cell surface, lacking a transmembrane or intracellular domain.^[7] Its structure features a compact, right-handed solenoid fold composed of 24 short alpha-helices and connecting loops, as revealed by crystallographic studies.^[1] A key functional region is the N-terminal domain spanning residues 296–359, which forms a conformation-sensitive structure essential for protein-protein interactions.^[8] Post-translational modifications include N-linked glycosylation at four potential sites (Asn57, Asn388, Asn488, and Asn515 in the precursor), which contribute to the protein's stability and shedding.^[7]^[1]^[2] The GPI anchor is added post-translationally at the C-terminus (after residue 598), facilitating membrane attachment, while proteolytic cleavage or phospholipase activity enables release of soluble mesothelin (sMSLN) into the extracellular space.^[7]^[1] Evolutionarily, mesothelin exhibits high conservation across mammals, with sequence homology to related GPI-anchored proteins such as otoancorin and stereocilin, which are involved in inner ear function and share structural motifs in their extracellular domains.^[1] This family resemblance underscores mesothelin's role in cell adhesion and signaling, though its precise evolutionary origin traces back to a common ancestor of these proteins in vertebrates.^[1]

Expression Patterns

In Normal Tissues

Mesothelin, encoded by the MSLN gene, exhibits highly restricted expression in normal human tissues, primarily localized to mesothelial cells lining the pleura, peritoneum, and pericardium.^[9]^[10] This tissue-specific pattern underscores its role as a differentiation antigen in these serosal membranes, where it is abundantly present on the cell surface.^[3] Low-level expression of mesothelin has been detected in select non-mesothelial tissues, including the squamous epithelium of tonsils, epithelial cells of the trachea, and the fallopian tube epithelium.^[11]^[12] In contrast, mesothelin is absent or present at negligible levels in the parenchyma of most vital organs, such as the brain, liver, and kidney.^[3]^[13] The expression of mesothelin is tightly regulated at the transcriptional level through its promoter region, which spans approximately 1.85 kb upstream of the transcriptional start site and lacks a TATA box but contains tissue-specific enhancer elements that drive mesothelium-restricted activity.^[14] In healthy individuals, circulating soluble mesothelin levels are minimal, with median serum concentrations typically below 1 nmol/L, reflecting the limited shedding from normal tissues.^[15] Studies in mesothelin knockout mice have demonstrated that the protein is not essential for normal development, fertility, or reproduction, as homozygous null animals exhibit no overt phenotypic abnormalities and maintain viable blood cell counts and organ function.^[16]^[17]

In Cancer

Mesothelin is aberrantly overexpressed in various malignant tissues, distinguishing it from its restricted expression in normal mesothelial cells. Expression rates vary by study, tumor subtype, and detection method. In mesotheliomas, overexpression occurs in 70–100% of cases, particularly in the epithelioid subtype where it approaches 95-100%. Similarly, 60–90% of ovarian cancers exhibit significant mesothelin expression, while pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas show levels around 85-100%. Lung adenocarcinomas display mesothelin in about 69% of tumors, and cholangiocarcinomas have notable expression in approximately 32% of cases, often focally in tumor cells.^[10]^[18]^[19]^[20] Elevated mesothelin expression correlates with advanced tumor stages and poorer prognosis in several cancers. For instance, in advanced ovarian cancer, high mesothelin levels are associated with chemoresistance and reduced survival rates. In pancreatic and lung cancers, particularly those with KRAS mutations, increased expression aligns with more aggressive disease progression.^[12]^[21] Mechanisms driving this upregulation include promoter hypomethylation, which leads to enhanced gene transcription in tumor cells, as observed in gynecological malignancies. Gene amplification of the MSLN locus contributes in select tumor types, such as esophageal adenocarcinomas. Additionally, oncogenic signaling pathways, exemplified by KRAS activation in pancreatic cancer, promote mesothelin overexpression through downstream transcriptional regulation.^[22]^[23]^[21] Shed soluble mesothelin (sMSLN), a fragment released from the cell surface, is elevated in the sera of patients with mesothelin-expressing cancers, including mesothelioma, ovarian, and pancreatic types, reflecting tumor burden.^[18] Recent findings from 2025 indicate mesothelin expression in rheumatoid arthritis-associated bone destruction, a non-malignant but tumor-like pathological process involving osteoclast regulation.^[24]

Biological Functions

Physiological Roles

Mesothelin, a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored glycoprotein expressed on the surface of mesothelial cells lining serosal cavities, has been proposed to play a role in protecting these surfaces from mechanical friction and abrasion during organ movement. This protective function is hypothesized based on its abundant localization in normal mesothelium of the pleura, peritoneum, and pericardium, where it may facilitate adhesion to the extracellular matrix, potentially acting as a lectin-like molecule to anchor cells and maintain tissue integrity.^[3] However, direct experimental evidence for this role remains limited, as mesothelin's precise contribution to serosal lubrication or repair processes has not been definitively established in vivo. In the female reproductive tract, mesothelin interacts with MUC16 (also known as CA125), a mucin expressed on epithelial surfaces, to mediate cell-cell adhesion that may contribute to mucosal protection. This high-affinity, N-glycan-dependent binding, with a dissociation constant of approximately 5-10 nM, supports heterotypic adhesion between mesothelin-expressing cells and MUC16-positive epithelia, potentially aiding in the barrier function of reproductive tissues.^[25] Although primarily studied in pathological contexts, the interaction's presence in normal fallopian tube and endometrial cells suggests a role in maintaining mucosal integrity, though this remains speculative without targeted functional studies. Studies using mesothelin (MSLN) knockout mice demonstrate that the protein is not essential for normal development, fertility, or reproduction, as homozygous mutants exhibit no detectable abnormalities in growth, platelet counts, or reproductive capabilities compared to wild-type littermates. These findings indicate that mesothelin provides non-critical supportive functions in healthy tissues rather than indispensable roles. Additionally, the N-terminal fragment of the mesothelin precursor, known as megakaryocyte potentiation factor (MPF), enhances the effects of interleukin-3 (IL-3) and IL-6 on megakaryocyte colony formation and maturation in vitro, potentially contributing to platelet production under normal physiological conditions. However, MPF lacks intrinsic colony-stimulating activity and its potentiating effects in human megakaryopoiesis have not been confirmed in vivo. Data on mesothelin's involvement in signaling pathways within normal cells are sparse, with evidence suggesting minimal activation of pathways such as NF-κB or PI3K/Akt in non-transformed mesothelial cells, contrasting with robust signaling observed in malignant contexts.^[26] This limited signaling profile aligns with mesothelin's non-essential nature, implying subtle modulatory roles in adhesion and cytokine responsiveness rather than driving proliferation or survival in healthy tissues.

Role in Tumorigenesis

Mesothelin plays a pivotal role in promoting the adhesion, invasion, and metastasis of tumor cells, primarily through its high-affinity interaction with MUC16 (also known as CA125), a mucin overexpressed on the surface of many cancer cells. This binding facilitates the attachment of tumor cells to mesothelial surfaces in the peritoneum, enabling peritoneal dissemination commonly observed in ovarian and pancreatic cancers. Studies have demonstrated that disrupting this mesothelin-MUC16 interaction significantly reduces cell motility and invasion by inhibiting the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP-7), which degrades the extracellular matrix to support tumor spread. In pancreatic cancer models, coexpression of mesothelin and MUC16 correlates with increased metastatic potential, underscoring the complex's contribution to aggressive disease progression.^[27]^[28]^[29] Mesothelin further enhances tumor cell survival by conferring resistance to chemotherapy, particularly platinum-based agents like cisplatin in ovarian cancer, through activation of pro-survival signaling pathways. High mesothelin expression has been linked to reduced sensitivity to cisplatin, leading to poorer patient outcomes, as it promotes anti-apoptotic mechanisms that allow cancer cells to evade drug-induced cell death. In high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma, mesothelin mediates this resistance by upregulating survival signals, including those involving the PI3K/AKT pathway, which sustains tumor cell viability under chemotherapeutic stress. Knocking down mesothelin in mesothelioma models restores cisplatin sensitivity, highlighting its mechanistic role in chemoresistance across mesothelin-expressing malignancies.^[30]^[31]^[32] At the molecular level, mesothelin activates key oncogenic pathways that drive tumorigenesis, including NF-κB, PI3K/AKT, and MMP-mediated extracellular matrix remodeling. In pancreatic cancer, mesothelin triggers NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling to inhibit TNF-α-induced apoptosis, upregulating anti-apoptotic proteins like IL-6 and Mcl-1, thereby enhancing cell survival and proliferation. This pathway activation also promotes MMP expression, facilitating tumor invasion by breaking down basement membranes and stromal barriers. Mesothelin overexpression in gastrointestinal cancers similarly stimulates PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK cascades, contributing to resistance against apoptosis-inducing agents like paclitaxel.^[33]^[18]^[10] Mesothelin contributes to cancer stemness and angiogenesis, particularly in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma and mesothelioma, fostering tumor initiation and vascular support for growth. In these models, mesothelin induces epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and stem cell-like traits, such as increased self-renewal and invasiveness, which blockage with antibodies like amatuximab reverses, reducing stemness markers and enhancing gemcitabine sensitivity. For angiogenesis, secreted mesothelin from pancreatic cancer cells recruits macrophages to secrete VEGFA and S100A9, promoting vascularization in metastatic lesions and supporting tumor colonization.^[34]^[35]

Clinical Significance

As a Diagnostic Biomarker

Mesothelin, particularly in its soluble form known as soluble mesothelin-related peptide (sMRP or SMRP), has been established as a serum biomarker for detecting mesothelin-expressing cancers, with elevated levels exceeding 2-3 nM commonly observed in patients with malignant pleural mesothelioma and epithelial ovarian cancer.^[36] In mesothelioma, sMRP demonstrates a pooled sensitivity of 61% (95% CI: 58-63%) and specificity of 87% (95% CI: 86-88%) for diagnosis, while in ovarian cancer, sensitivities range from 40% to 82% at high specificity thresholds, often outperforming standalone use in early-stage detection when combined with imaging.^[37]^[38] The primary assay for measuring sMRP is the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), such as the FDA-approved MESOMARK kit, which quantifies levels in serum with cutoff values typically ranging from 0.93 to 2.0 nM depending on laboratory protocols and population studied.^[39]^[36] Alternative assays, like those for megakaryocyte potentiating factor (MPF)—a related mesothelin fragment—are less commonly employed due to comparable but not superior performance.^[40] These assays facilitate non-invasive monitoring, though inter-laboratory variability in cutoffs can affect reproducibility.^[36] Elevated sMRP levels also hold prognostic significance, correlating with advanced disease stage, metastatic spread, and poorer survival outcomes in both ovarian and pancreatic cancers.^[12]^[41] In ovarian cancer, high preoperative sMRP is independently associated with chemoresistance and reduced progression-free survival.^[12] Similarly, in pancreatic cancer, increased mesothelin expression links to tumor aggressiveness and diminished overall survival.^[41] Combining sMRP with other markers enhances diagnostic accuracy; for instance, pairing it with CA125 in ovarian cancer improves sensitivity at 98% specificity, reaching up to 67% for high-risk populations.^[42] However, limitations include assay variability across platforms and false-positive results in conditions like renal impairment, where reduced clearance elevates sMRP independently of malignancy.^[36]^[43] As of 2025, sMRP shows significant differential expression in pancreatic cancer patient cohorts and has been evaluated in multi-biomarker screening panels for early detection using machine learning-based models alongside markers like CA19-9, though it was not included in the optimal panel identified in recent studies.^[44]

Therapeutic Applications

Mesothelin-targeted therapies have emerged as a promising approach for treating cancers with high mesothelin expression, such as mesothelioma, ovarian, and pancreatic cancers, primarily through antibody-based, cellular, and vaccine modalities.^[45] These strategies leverage mesothelin's restricted expression in normal tissues to minimize off-target effects while exploiting its overexpression in tumors.^[46] Monoclonal antibodies against mesothelin, such as amatuximab (MORAb-009), a chimeric anti-mesothelin antibody, have been evaluated in phase II trials for advanced unresectable pleural mesothelioma, often in combination with pemetrexed and cisplatin.^[47] Amatuximab demonstrated tolerability at doses up to 200 mg/m², with 90% of patients achieving objective responses or stable disease, though it did not significantly extend overall survival compared to chemotherapy alone.^[48] Antibody-drug conjugates like anetumab ravtansine, which links an anti-mesothelin antibody to a maytansinoid payload, have shown robust antitumor activity in preclinical models of mesothelioma and ovarian cancer.^[49] In phase II trials, anetumab ravtansine showed similar progression-free survival to vinorelbine (4.3 months vs. 4.5 months) with manageable toxicity in relapsed mesothelioma, but failed to outperform paclitaxel in high-grade serous ovarian cancer as of 2025.^[50]^[51] Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies targeting mesothelin, such as anti-MSLN CAR-T cells (e.g., CART-meso), have been tested in phase I trials for solid tumors including mesothelioma and ovarian cancer.^[52] These therapies demonstrate a favorable safety profile with regional administration reducing systemic toxicity, but efficacy remains limited due to on-target effects on normal mesothelium, leading to pulmonary complications in some cases.^[45] For instance, mesothelin affinity-tuned CAR-T cells have shown enhanced persistence and reduced toxicity in preclinical models by mitigating high-affinity binding issues observed in earlier trials.^[53] Ongoing trials, such as those with FC004 for platinum-resistant ovarian cancer, report preliminary antitumor activity but highlight challenges with T-cell exhaustion.^[54] Immunotoxins like SS1P, comprising an anti-mesothelin disulfide-stabilized Fv fragment fused to Pseudomonas exotoxin A (PE38), were developed to deliver cytotoxic payloads directly to mesothelin-expressing cells.^[55] Phase I trials established a maximum tolerated dose with evidence of tumor regression in mesothelioma and ovarian cancer patients, but development was halted due to immunogenicity and vascular leak syndrome.^[56] Insights from SS1P have informed next-generation immunotoxins, such as LMB-100, which exhibit reduced antigenicity while retaining efficacy in preclinical studies.^[57] Vaccine approaches include CRS-207, a live-attenuated Listeria monocytogenes engineered to express mesothelin, which stimulates both innate and adaptive immunity.^[58] In a phase II trial for metastatic pancreatic cancer, CRS-207 combined with GVAX pancreas vaccine and chemotherapy improved median overall survival to 6.1 months versus 3.9 months with chemotherapy alone, though a subsequent phase IIb study did not meet its primary endpoint.^[59]^[60] As of 2025, emerging therapies include bispecific antibodies and engineered scaffold proteins. Bispecific T-cell engagers like CT-95, a humanized anti-mesothelin construct, are in phase I trials for mesothelin-expressing advanced cancers, showing promising safety and T-cell activation in preclinical data.^[61] Similarly, JNJ-79032421, a mesothelin-targeted bispecific, is advancing in phase I/II studies for solid tumors.^[62] Engineered Fn3 scaffold proteins, non-antibody variants of fibronectin type III domains, bind mesothelin with high affinity for targeted delivery of therapeutics, demonstrating internalization and enhanced cytotoxicity in mesothelioma models.^[63] These scaffolds offer advantages in stability and reduced immunogenicity over traditional antibodies.^[64] Ongoing challenges in mesothelin-targeted therapies include tumor heterogeneity leading to variable expression and antigen loss, development of resistance mechanisms such as immune evasion, and on-target toxicity affecting normal mesothelial cells.^[45] Strategies to address these, including combination therapies and patient selection via biomarker assays, are under investigation to improve clinical outcomes.^[65]

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Anti-Mesothelin CAR T cell therapy for malignant mesothelioma
Table 1 Anti-mesothelin CAR T cell therapy clinical trials in malignant mesothelioma ; NCT02159716. I. Anti-MSLN CAR-T cells. (CART-meso) ; NCT03054298. I. Anti- ...
[53]
Affinity-tuned mesothelin CAR T cells demonstrate enhanced ...
Nov 22, 2024 · Severe pulmonary toxicity and patient fatalities have been reported in clinical trials evaluating an MSLN CAR incorporating a nanomolar affinity ...Missing: MCARH109 | Show results with:MCARH109
[54]
Abstract CT030: Mesothelin-targeted CAR-T therapy FC004 for ...
Apr 25, 2025 · We report results from a phase I study of FC004, an MSLN-CAR T-cell therapy, in patients with platinum-resistant ovarian cancer.
[55]
Phase I study of SS1P, a recombinant anti-mesothelin immunotoxin ...
Sep 1, 2007 · Purpose: To determine the toxicities, maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and pharmacokinetics of the recombinant immunotoxin SS1P (anti-mesothelin ...
[56]
Anti-mesothelin immunotoxin induces mesothelioma ... - PNAS
Nov 21, 2022 · SS1P (SS1-dsFv-PE38) is a MSLN-targeted immunotoxin and consists of the disulfide-stabilized heavy chain Fv (VH) and light chain Fv (VL) of ...
[57]
Enhanced efficacy of mesothelin-targeted immunotoxin LMB-100 ...
Jul 1, 2020 · LMB-100 is an improved anti-mesothelin immunotoxin with reduced antigenicity compared with the first-generation molecule SS1P (29). The ...
[58]
Safety and survival with GVAX pancreas prime and ... - PubMed - NIH
Apr 20, 2015 · CRS-207, live-attenuated Listeria monocytogenes-expressing mesothelin, induces innate and adaptive immunity. On the basis of preclinical synergy ...
[59]
Safety and Survival With GVAX Pancreas Prime and <i>Listeria ...
Jan 12, 2015 · CRS-207, live-attenuated Listeria monocytogenes–expressing mesothelin, induces innate and adaptive immunity. On the basis of preclinical synergy ...
[60]
Evaluation of Cyclophosphamide/GVAX Pancreas ... - PubMed
Jul 15, 2020 · Evaluation of Cyclophosphamide/GVAX Pancreas Followed by Listeria-Mesothelin (CRS-207) with or without Nivolumab in Patients with Pancreatic ...
[61]
Press Release - Investor Relations | Context Therapeutics Inc.
Apr 30, 2025 · Context Therapeutics Presents Preclinical and Translational Data for CT-95, a Mesothelin Targeting T Cell Engager, at 2025 AACR Annual Meeting.
[62]
A Study of JNJ-79032421 Targeting Mesothelin for Advanced Stage ...
The purpose of this study is to determine recommended phase 2 dose(s) (RP2Ds) of JNJ-79032421 and to determine the safety and tolerability of JNJ-79032421 ...
[63]
Development of a Mesothelin-Binding Engineered Scaffold Protein ...
Oct 27, 2025 · We engineered proteins based on the nonantibody fibronectin type III (Fn3) protein scaffold that bind MSLN with high affinity and specificity, ...
[64]
Development of a Mesothelin-Binding Engineered Scaffold Protein ...
Oct 30, 2025 · Engineered Fn3 protein has targeted therapeutic effect on mesothelin‐expressing cancer cells and increases tumor cell sensitivity to ...
[65]
Full article: Mesothelin-targeted CAR-T cell therapy for solid tumors
Mesothelin gene expression and promoter methylation/hypomethylation in gynecological tumors. ... cancer marker by serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE).1. Mesothelin · 1.2. Anti-Msln Antibodies... · 1.3. Anti-Msln Cancer...