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Near Islands

The Near Islands are the westernmost group in the Aleutian Islands archipelago, situated in the Aleutians West Census Area of southwestern Alaska, United States.^[1] This remote cluster lies approximately 1,100 miles west of the Alaska Peninsula and east of Russia's Commander Islands, marking the boundary between the U.S. and Russian territories in the North Pacific.^[2] The principal islands include Attu, the largest and westernmost; Agattu, the second-largest; and the Semichi Islands subgroup, consisting of Alaid, Nizki, and Shemya.^[1] Geologically, the Near Islands consist primarily of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, with minor intrusive formations, resulting from tectonic activity along the subduction zone where the Pacific Plate converges with the North American Plate.^[3] The terrain is rugged and mountainous, featuring steep cliffs, fjords, and active or dormant volcanoes, which contribute to the islands' harsh subarctic climate characterized by frequent fog, high winds, and limited vegetation dominated by tundra grasses and mosses.^[3] Ecologically, the area supports diverse marine life and serves as a critical habitat for seabirds, including auklets, murres, and puffins, making it an integral part of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge established to protect these species.^[4] Historically, the Near Islands, known to the indigenous Unangax̂ (Aleut) people as Sasignan, have evidence of human occupation dating back over 3,000 years, with semi-permanent settlements focused on marine resource harvesting.^[5]^[6] Russian explorers arrived in the mid-18th century, initiating fur trapping that decimated sea otter populations and severely disrupted Unangax̂ communities through forced relocation and disease.^[6] Following the U.S. purchase of Alaska in 1867, the islands saw limited settlement, but during World War II, Japanese forces occupied Attu and Kiska in June 1942, leading to the forcible evacuation of Unangax̂ residents and the brutal Battle of Attu in May 1943, which resulted in approximately 3,500 American casualties, including 549 killed and 1,148 wounded, with an additional 1,814 cases of frostbite and disease, and marked one of the only WWII battles on North American soil.^[7]^[8]^[9] Today, the uninhabited islands host military installations like Eareckson Air Station on Shemya and remain significant for wildlife conservation and scientific research into Aleutian biodiversity and climate impacts.^[10]^[11]

Geography

Location and extent

The Near Islands constitute the westernmost group of the Aleutian Islands archipelago in southwestern Alaska, United States, forming a triangular configuration with Attu Island at the western vertex, Agattu Island at the southern vertex, and Shemya Island at the eastern vertex. This cluster comprises 15 islands rising from a submerged platform along the Aleutian Ridge, with a total land area of approximately 1,167 km² and a coastline exceeding 616 km.^[12] The major islands include Attu, the largest at about 893 km²; Agattu, the second largest at roughly 222 km²; and the Semichi Islands subgroup, consisting of Shemya, Nizki, and Alaid, each under 20 km².^[13]^[14] Positioned between latitudes 52°21′ N and 53°01′ N and longitudes 172°22′ E and 174°12′ E, the Near Islands are centered around 52°48′ N, 173°08′ E and extend eastward from proximity to Russia's Commander Islands—across the International Date Line—to the boundary with the Rat Islands near Amchitka Island. As the western terminus of the Aleutian chain, Attu Island marks the westernmost point of U.S. territory, rendering the Near Islands the closest American landmasses to Asia and Russia. The islands lie within the Pacific Ring of Fire, a seismically active zone shaped by subduction along the Aleutian Trench, and serve as a natural barrier bordered by the Bering Sea to the north—where a steep fault scarp descends to the seafloor—and the Pacific Ocean to the south, separated by submarine canyons and a narrower shelf.^[15]^[16]

Geology and terrain

The Near Islands form the westernmost segment of the Aleutian Arc, a volcanic island arc generated by the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate along the Aleutian Trench. This process has produced a chain of islands characterized by tectonic compression, uplift, and magmatism spanning from the late Mesozoic to the Holocene.^[3] Submarine volcanism and marine sedimentation dominated early formation, followed by middle Tertiary intrusions, faulting, and subaerial volcanism, with glacial and marine processes shaping the modern landscape during the Pleistocene and Holocene.^[3] The islands' geology features a mix of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, with predominant compositions including basaltic andesite lavas, pillow lavas, tuffs, and pyroclastics, alongside sedimentary layers of chert, argillite, graywacke, conglomerate, and sandstone.^[3] Intrusive rocks such as diabase, gabbro, and dacite porphyry occur as dikes and plugs, reflecting episodic magmatism, but no Holocene volcanoes or major historical eruptions are recorded on the islands themselves.^[3] The broader region experiences active volcanism, though the Near Islands lack significant recent activity, with offshore features like the Ingenstrem Depression Volcanic Field—a fault-bounded basin 60 km long and up to 2,000 m deep—indicating submerged volcanic origins along the arc crest.^[17] Terrain across the Near Islands is rugged and varied, with Attu exhibiting the most dramatic relief through mountainous interiors, U-shaped glacial valleys, cirques up to 2,250 ft deep, steep sea cliffs, and narrow beaches.^[3] Attu's highest point, Attu Mountain, reaches 2,946 ft, part of a central ridge system including Gilbert Ridge, while Agattu features rolling plateaus at 300–850 ft elevation with cirques and fjord-like inlets, and Shemya presents a low, gently tilted plateau rising to 275 ft.^[3] Extensive normal and strike-slip faulting, with displacements up to 3,000 ft, structures the landscape, contributing to ongoing tectonic instability.^[3] Seismic activity is prevalent due to the subduction zone setting, with the islands prone to earthquakes; a notable event was the magnitude 7.8 quake on July 17, 2017, centered west of Attu along the Bering Fracture Zone, which ruptured over 400 km and generated aftershocks but no significant local damage.^[18] Soils are thin and volcanic-derived, classified as tundra with discontinuous frost-shattered mantles, turf, and alluvial deposits, supporting limited vegetation.^[3] Erosion is driven by high winds, wave action, and postglacial streams, forming gullies up to 400 ft deep and wide shore platforms, though glacial processes have left boulder trains and moraines as enduring features.^[3]

Climate

The climate of the Near Islands is classified as subpolar oceanic under the Köppen-Geiger system (Cfc), characterized by cool, cloudy conditions moderated by the surrounding North Pacific waters.^[19] Summer temperatures are mild and uniform, with July averages ranging from 10–13°C, while winters remain relatively temperate, featuring January averages of -2 to 3°C.^[20] Annual precipitation totals 1,500–2,000 mm, predominantly as persistent fog, drizzle, and rain throughout the year, with snowfall limited to 760–2,540 mm due to the strong maritime influence that keeps temperatures above severe freezing levels.^[20] Wind patterns are dominated by the semi-permanent Aleutian Low pressure system, which generates frequent storms and persistent gales, often exceeding 100 km/h (62 mph) during the winter months from October to March.^[20] These gales, combined with sudden katabatic williwaws descending from rugged terrain, create hazardous conditions, with south-to-northwest winds prevailing in summer and shifting to north-to-southeast in winter.^[20] The islands experience precipitation on 200–300 days annually, contributing to the consistently overcast skies.^[20] Fog severely limits visibility for much of the year, occurring on over 200 days and peaking in late spring and summer when warm maritime air interacts with cooler island surfaces.^[21] This persistent fog, often covering elevations above 100–200 feet, has earned the broader Aleutian chain the nickname "Foggy Aleutians" and influences navigation and aviation in the region.^[20] In recent decades, climate change has amplified these patterns, with air temperatures rising approximately 1–2°C since the 1950s at a rate of about 0.28°C per decade, alongside increased storm intensity from a strengthening Aleutian Low.^[22] Potential sea-level rise, projected at 0.3–0.6 meters by 2100 in Alaskan coastal areas, poses risks to low-lying islands like Shemya, exacerbating erosion on vulnerable terrain.^[23]

History

Indigenous peoples and early exploration

The indigenous inhabitants of the Near Islands, part of the western Aleutian archipelago, were the Unangax̂, also known as Aleuts, who maintained a presence in the region for several thousand years, with archaeological evidence indicating occupation around 3,000 years ago.^[24]^[25]^[26] These semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers relied on the sea for sustenance, employing specialized kayaks called iqyax and harpoon technologies to pursue marine mammals such as sea otters, seals, and whales, as well as seabirds and fish. Their subsistence economy emphasized efficient resource use, with every part of hunted animals incorporated into tools, clothing, shelter, and food, reflecting deep ecological knowledge honed over millennia. Cultural phases such as Near Islands II (ca. 2,400–750 years ago) show increased population and settlement.^[7] Unangax̂ society on the Near Islands featured a matrilineal kinship system, where descent and inheritance traced through the mother's line, women owned homes and key resources, and boys were often raised by maternal uncles to foster extended family ties. This structure supported communal living in semi-subterranean dwellings known as barabaras, built from driftwood, whalebone, and sod, which housed extended families during harsh winters. Cultural life revolved around sophisticated oral traditions, including myths, songs, and narratives that preserved history, spiritual beliefs, and environmental wisdom, often performed during ceremonies with carved masks and dances. Sustainable hunting practices were integral, guided by rituals of respect toward animals—such as proper handling of remains to avoid offending spirits—and taboos that prevented overhunting, ensuring long-term viability in the resource-scarce islands. Pre-contact population estimates for the Near Islands suggest around 2,000 individuals, concentrated in seasonal villages like those on Attu and Agattu, part of the broader Unangax̂ total of 15,000–18,000 across the Aleutians.^[24]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[7] European contact began with the Russian expedition led by Vitus Bering and Aleksey Chirikov in 1741, which sighted and mapped parts of the eastern and central Aleutian chain during their voyage from Kamchatka. Bering's ship, the St. Peter, explored the Gulf of Alaska and encountered Unangax̂ peoples, while Chirikov independently discovered eastern islands; this marked the first documented European awareness of the archipelago. The Near Islands were subsequently reached by Siberian fur traders in the 1740s–1750s. The islands were named Blizhnnye Ostrova ("Near Islands") by Russian cartographers in the mid-18th century, reflecting their relative proximity to the Asian mainland and Kamchatka Peninsula compared to the rest of the distant chain. Following this, Siberian fur traders known as promyshlenniki arrived in the 1750s, initiating the maritime fur trade focused on sea otters, whose dense pelts fetched high prices in Europe and Asia. These traders indentured Unangax̂ hunters, coercing them into intensive otter hunts using traditional iqyax, which rapidly depleted local populations—some sea otter groups were overhunted to near-extinction by the 1760s—and triggered the first major decline in Unangax̂ numbers through exploitation, introduced diseases, and violence. By the late 18th century, the overall Unangax̂ population had fallen by about 80%, from disease outbreaks like smallpox and forced labor demands.^[30]^[31]^[32]^[24]^[29]

Russian and American periods

The Near Islands, comprising the westernmost group of the Aleutian chain including Attu, Agattu, and the Semichi Islands, fell under Russian administration as part of Russian America following the arrival of fur traders in 1743, who targeted the region due to its proximity to the Asian mainland. The Russian-American Company, granted a monopoly on the North Pacific fur trade in 1799, oversaw the islands' exploitation, compelling Unangax̂ (Aleut) inhabitants to hunt sea otters, foxes, and other furbearers under harsh conditions of forced labor and relocation. Early contact brought immediate devastation through violence, disease, and overwork; the pre-contact Unangax̂ population across the Near Islands is estimated at around 2,000, but by the 1760s, it had plummeted to approximately 100 on Attu alone due to epidemics like smallpox and exploitation in the iasak tribute system. Further relocations exacerbated the decline, with Atkan Unangax̂ moved to Attu in 1805 and some Attuans transported to the Commander Islands between 1814–1816 and 1872–1873, reducing local numbers to under 50 in some communities by the mid-19th century.^[7]^[33]^[34] In 1867, the Russian Empire transferred Alaska, including the Near Islands, to the United States via the Alaska Purchase for $7.2 million, a deal initially derided as "Seward's Folly" for its perceived lack of value amid the remote, rugged territory. The U.S. government initially neglected the region, with minimal administrative presence, allowing the Russian-American Company's operations to continue briefly under lease until 1868. American exploration began in earnest during the late 19th century through the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service, which conducted patrols and hydrographic surveys of the Aleutian waters to map navigation hazards and enforce sealing regulations in the Bering Sea; notable efforts included charting by cutters like the Corwin in the 1880s, aiding scientific expeditions and territorial claims. By the early 1900s, the U.S. Weather Bureau established observation stations across the Aleutians to monitor storms affecting Pacific shipping, though the Near Islands received sporadic visits rather than permanent outposts, while lighthouses were limited to eastern chain sites like Unalaska until later decades.^[35]^[36] Efforts to revitalize the economy and Unangax̂ communities in the early 20th century included the introduction of reindeer herding as an alternative to depleted marine resources, inspired by Sheldon Jackson's broader initiative to provide sustainable livelihoods for Alaska Natives. In 1909, a small herd was introduced to Attu, but the venture failed due to the harsh subarctic climate, predation, and unsuitable terrain, with the animals perishing or wandering off within years. Concurrently, American authorities initiated limited repatriation efforts for Unangax̂ displaced during the Russian era, facilitating the return of some families from the Commander Islands to the Aleutians in the 1870s and 1880s, though few settled permanently in the Near Islands amid ongoing population pressures and isolation. These changes marked a transitional phase of neglect and tentative integration before broader geopolitical shifts.^[7]^[37]^[7]

World War II

In June 1942, Japanese forces invaded the Near Islands as part of Operation AL, landing on Attu on June 7 and establishing it as a forward outpost to divert U.S. attention from the Pacific theater. Approximately 2,500 Imperial Japanese Army troops occupied Attu, constructing defenses and using the island for reconnaissance and submarine support. The occupation displaced local Unangax̂ (Aleut) residents; on Attu, 42 civilians were captured and interned in Japan, where harsh conditions led to 16 deaths from disease and malnutrition.^[38]^[39]^[40]^[9] The U.S. launched the Aleutian Islands Campaign to reclaim the islands, beginning with the Battle of Attu on May 11, 1943, involving a 15,000-strong assault by the 7th Infantry Division against entrenched Japanese positions. The 19-day operation, marked by brutal weather and terrain, ended on May 29 with a massive Japanese banzai charge; U.S. forces suffered 549 killed and 1,148 wounded, while nearly all 2,351 Japanese defenders died by combat or suicide, with only 28 captured.^[41]^[42]^[43] In the immediate aftermath, the U.S. military invested heavily in infrastructure to secure the western Aleutians, constructing Alexai Point Army Airfield on Attu by September 1943 for bomber operations against Japanese-held territories and Shemya Army Airfield starting in late May 1943 as a key staging base for long-range aircraft. The campaign displaced approximately 600 Unangax̂ from the Near Islands and surrounding western Aleutians, who were evacuated by U.S. forces to internment camps in southeast Alaska, enduring overcrowding, inadequate food, and disease that caused over 10% mortality and contributed to enduring cultural and community losses upon partial postwar returns.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Human presence

Population and demographics

The Near Islands are currently largely uninhabited by civilians, with the only human presence consisting of transient military and contractor personnel stationed at Eareckson Air Station on Shemya Island. Attu Island, the largest of the group, has had no permanent residents since the closure of the U.S. Coast Guard's Attu Station in August 2010, when its final 21 inhabitants—all Coast Guard personnel—departed. Access to the islands is strictly restricted to authorized military and government personnel due to their remote location and strategic importance.^[47] The 2000 U.S. Census recorded 47 residents across the Near Islands, primarily transient workers associated with military and Coast Guard operations at Attu Station and Eareckson Air Station.^[48] Prior to World War II, the indigenous Unangan (Aleut) population in the Near Islands was concentrated in Attu village with approximately 45 residents who maintained a traditional subsistence lifestyle influenced by Russian colonial legacies and limited American contact. The ethnic composition was predominantly Unangan, with admixtures of Russian Creole heritage from the 18th and 19th centuries.^[49] World War II profoundly altered the demographic landscape through the forced displacement and internment of the Unangan population. In June 1942, following the Japanese occupation of Attu, 41 villagers were captured and interned in Hokkaido, Japan; only 25 survived the war, and U.S. policy prevented their return to the islands, effectively eliminating indigenous communities from the Near Islands. This event, combined with broader wartime evacuations across the Aleutians, reduced the native population to zero in the region. Postwar resettlement efforts focused on eastern Aleutian communities, leaving the western Near Islands without Unangan inhabitants.^[47]^[46] The transient population at Eareckson Air Station was estimated at 160–220 personnel including contractors and rotating service members as of 2008, skewing heavily toward young adult males due to its role as a remote U.S. Air Force radar and surveillance outpost; recent temporary deployments, such as approximately 130 soldiers in September 2024, have increased activity amid regional security concerns.^[50]^[51] No indigenous or civilian communities remain, and migration to the islands is nonexistent outside military rotations. Vital statistics reflect this impermanence: no births or deaths have been recorded in civilian contexts since 2010, with any medical needs addressed through on-site military health facilities.

Settlements and infrastructure

The primary human settlement and infrastructure on the Near Islands is centered at Eareckson Air Station, a United States Air Force facility located on Shemya Island that has operated since 1943.^[52] This remote military installation features a 10,000-foot runway capable of supporting refueling operations for large aircraft and houses radar systems for surveillance and early warning missions in the North Pacific.^[53] The station sustains approximately 160 contractor personnel year-round, with numbers potentially rising to 220 during summer months to accommodate maintenance and operational demands.^[50] Another notable site is the decommissioned Attu Station on Attu Island, formerly a U.S. Coast Guard LORAN navigation facility that operated for 66 years until its closure in August 2010.^[54] Following decommissioning, the site's transmission tower was demolished, but remnants including abandoned buildings and a World War II-era cemetery persist, with the airfield available only for emergency landings.^[55] The cemetery, originally a temporary burial ground for Japanese soldiers, holds historical significance, though many remains were later exhumed and relocated.^[56] Infrastructure across the Near Islands remains minimal, with no roads, ports, or permanent civilian developments; limited airstrips exist on Attu Island from World War II but are unused and overgrown.^[57] Access to the islands is restricted to military or charter flights originating from Adak Island, approximately 300 miles to the east, due to their isolation and lack of scheduled commercial service.^[58] Eareckson Air Station generates its own electricity via an 18-megawatt on-site power plant and collects potable water through dedicated systems, including desalination processes, with no civilian amenities available.^[59]^[60] The economic role of the Near Islands is dominated by military operations at Eareckson Air Station, which supports U.S. defense activities in the region without broader civilian economic contributions, including potential expansions discussed as of 2025.^[61] Surrounding waters, part of the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands management area, sustain commercial fishing fleets targeting species such as Pacific cod and golden king crab, though these activities occur offshore and involve external vessels rather than island-based operations.^[62]^[63]

Environment

Flora

The Near Islands, part of the western Aleutian archipelago, support a tundra biome characterized by treeless landscapes due to harsh maritime conditions, with vegetation dominated by low-growing grasses, sedges, mosses, lichens, and dwarf shrubs such as willows (Salix spp.) and crowberry (Empetrum nigrum).^[64]^[65] This ecosystem reflects the islands' cool, windy climate and nutrient-poor volcanic soils, fostering resilient, mat-forming plant communities that stabilize the terrain.^[66] The vascular flora of the western Aleutians, including the Near Islands, comprises approximately 386 species, many of which are endemics or disjuncts shared with Asian floras, contributing to the region's high phytogeographic diversity.^[67] Key coastal species include beach rye (Leymus arenarius), a tall, rhizomatous grass that forms dense stands on sandy beaches to combat erosion from salt spray and storms.^[68] In upland meadows and heathlands, alpine azalea (Kalmia procumbens) and nootka lupine (Lupinus nootkatensis) provide colorful accents, with the former forming creeping mats and the latter fixing nitrogen in gravelly soils.^[69]^[70] Vegetation exhibits distinct zonation patterns: salt-tolerant herbs like beach rye and sea plantain (Plantago maritima) dominate exposed coastal zones, while upland areas feature heath communities of dwarf shrubs, sedges (Carex spp.), and graminoids.^[71] Seasonal wildflowers, such as alpine forget-me-not (Myosotis asiatica), bloom vibrantly in summer, transforming the tundra into a mosaic of blues and purples amid the greens of mosses and lichens.^[72] These plants are primarily low-growing perennials adapted to persistent winds, with prostrate forms and thick cuticles resisting desiccation and abrasion; nitrogen-fixing lichens, including species from the genera Stereocaulon and Peltigera, play a crucial role in enriching the oligotrophic soils.^[65]^[73] Human activities have introduced non-native grasses, such as red fescue (Festuca rubra) and hairgrass (Deschampsia cespitosa), during post-World War II military revegetation efforts on islands like Attu and Shemya, leading to localized invasions in disturbed areas.^[74] Ongoing climate warming is prompting shifts in species distributions, with some tundra plants migrating upslope as temperatures rise and growing seasons lengthen, potentially altering community compositions in this sensitive biome.^[75]^[76]

Fauna

The Near Islands, part of the western Aleutian Archipelago, serve as critical nesting grounds for millions of seabirds, supporting some of the highest densities of breeding populations in the world.^[77] These include diverse species of auklets such as least auklets (Aethia pusilla), crested auklets (Aethia cristatella), parakeet auklets (Cyclorrhynchus psittacula), and whiskered auklets (Aethia pygmaea), which nest in burrows or crevices on steep cliffs and talus slopes.^[78] Tufted puffins (Fratercula cirrhata) and horned puffins (Fratercula corniculata) are abundant, excavating nests in soil or rocky substrates, while common murres (Uria aalge) and thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia) form massive colonies on sheer rock faces, laying single eggs on ledges.^[78] Northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) also breed prolifically, utilizing similar coastal habitats.^[78] Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) are rare in this region, representing the westernmost U.S. breeding habitat, with sightings and occasional nesting pairs reported on Agattu and Shemya Islands.^[79] Marine mammals thrive in the surrounding Bering Sea waters and nearshore environments of the Near Islands. Northern sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) have shown recovery in some areas following the end of the 19th-century fur trade, which nearly extirpated them, though populations remain vulnerable.^[80] Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) and Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) haul out on rocky shores and islets, with seasonal aggregations for resting, molting, and pupping.^[81] Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) and killer whales (Orcinus orca) migrate through these nutrient-rich waters, feeding on krill, fish, and marine mammals.^[82] Terrestrial fauna on the Near Islands is limited, with no native land mammals present; arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) were introduced during the early 20th-century fur farming era and have since impacted native bird populations by preying on eggs and chicks in seabird colonies.^[83] Insects and rodents are sparse, with native arthropod diversity low due to the harsh subarctic climate and limited vegetation, though introduced rats (Rattus norvegicus) pose ongoing threats to ground-nesting birds on some islands.^[84] The Near Islands lie along the Bering Sea flyway, a major migratory corridor where seabirds such as auklets and murres travel seasonally between breeding sites and wintering grounds in the North Pacific.^[85] Pinnipeds exhibit seasonal haul-outs on rocky shores, peaking in summer for breeding and molting, which facilitates energy conservation and social interactions.^[86] Sea otter populations in the western Aleutians, including the Near Islands, experienced a sharp decline starting in the 1990s, attributed primarily to predation by killer whales, which shifted prey preferences after the depletion of larger marine mammals.^[87] This led to an estimated 97% reduction in some areas by the early 2000s, prompting ongoing monitoring by agencies like the U.S. Geological Survey to track recovery and habitat use.^[88]

Conservation and threats

The Near Islands, as part of the Aleutian Islands Unit of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, benefit from federal protections established under the refuge system, originally created in 1913 as the Aleutian Islands Reservation and significantly expanded in 1980 to encompass over 2,500 islands and coastal lands spanning 4.9 million acres for the conservation of marine wildlife.^[89] In 1980, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) designated the 1.3 million-acre Aleutian Islands Wilderness, which includes the majority of the Near Islands' land area, prioritizing the preservation of native biodiversity and limiting human development to support seabird nesting and marine mammal habitats.^[90] Key conservation initiatives focus on restoring ecosystems disrupted by historical human activities, including invasive species removal and species recovery programs. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), in collaboration with partners like Island Conservation, successfully eradicated invasive Norway rats from Hawadax Island (formerly Rat Island) in the nearby Rat Islands group between 2002 and 2003 using aerial baiting, leading to the recovery of seabird populations such as least auklets within a decade.^[91]^[92] Ongoing efforts target rat infestations on other Aleutian islands, including proposals for eradication on Kiska and Great Sitkin, and in September 2024, the USFWS initiated an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for rat eradication on four islands—Amchitka, Attu, Great Sitkin, and Kiska—with a draft EIS expected in spring 2026.^[4]^[93] Additionally, the southwest Alaska distinct population segment of northern sea otters, which includes the Near Islands region, was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 2005, prompting recovery actions such as habitat protection and predator control to address declines from historic fur trade overhunting.^[94] Major threats to the Near Islands' ecosystems stem from invasive species, climate change, and lingering military legacies. Introduced Arctic foxes and rats, often linked to World War II shipwrecks and debris, prey on seabirds and disrupt native food webs, with foxes historically introduced for fur farming and now targeted for removal in refuge management plans.^[81] Climate change exacerbates vulnerabilities through ocean warming and acidification, which have shifted Aleutian fisheries—such as declines in Pacific cod stocks—and stressed shellfish and coral habitats critical for marine biodiversity.^[95]^[96] Military pollution from WWII installations persists, including fuel spills, asbestos, and unexploded ordnance on sites like Attu Island, where the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has initiated cleanup of contaminated soils and structures to mitigate risks to wildlife and water quality.^[97]^[98] Cultural conservation efforts complement ecological protections by safeguarding Unangâx̂ (Aleut) heritage amid these threats. Archaeological sites on Attu Island, including village remains dating back thousands of years, are preserved through USFWS oversight during WWII site cleanups, which integrate cultural resource surveys to protect ancient middens and artifacts from erosion and disturbance.^[99] Repatriation initiatives have returned WWII-displaced Unangâx̂ artifacts to Alaska Native communities, supporting cultural revitalization while addressing the internment of Attu residents during the war.^[100] Ongoing monitoring by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and USFWS tracks environmental changes through seabird surveys, marine mammal telemetry, and habitat assessments across the refuge, providing data to inform adaptive management.^[101]^[89] Seismic activity poses additional risks, as demonstrated by the 2017 M6.9 earthquake in the Near Islands region, which underscored potential habitat disruptions from landslides and tsunamis in this tectonically active subduction zone.^[102]

References

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Geographic Names Information System - The National Map
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[PDF] Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge – Attu and Kiska Islands
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[19]
[PDF] World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated
we present a digital world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification calculated from up-to-date global temperature and precipitation data sets. The ...
[20]
[PDF] US Coast Pilot 9, Chapter 7 - NOAA Nautical Charts
In the west Aleutians over the Rat and Near Islands, winds are also strong and variable. From about April through November, south through northwest winds.
[21]
https://www.nytimes.com/1942/07/07/archives/aleutian-fog.html
[22]
[PDF] 1.11 climate trends and variability in alaska since 1950
For the long-term trend, all regions show an average increase in the mean annual temperature on the order of 0.28°C per decade since 1950.
[23]
Alaska Coastal Communities' Exposure to Climate Change-Induced ...
Apr 25, 2024 · This research is part of a larger effort to map Alaska's floodplains and prepare communities for sea level rise and changing storm climatology.
[24]
Alaska's Changing Environment | ACCAP
Warming oceans and atmosphere are driving more frequent and impactful extreme events across all of Alaska. Storms produce widespread coastal flooding, trigger ...
[25]
Unangax̂ History and Culture - Aleutian Islands World War II ...
Aug 5, 2024 · The Alaska Natives who call the Aleutian Islands home are known as the Unangax̂. The commonly-known name Aleut was given to this group by Russian ...
[26]
Origins of Aleuts and the genetic structure of populations ... - PubMed
Our findings support the hypothesis that the ancestors of the Aleuts crossed Beringia and expanded westerly into the islands approximately 9,000 years ago.
[27]
A model of the origins and development of Aleut - ScienceDirect
Between 3600 and 1000 years ago, there appears to be cultural stability in the Aleutians, Alaska Peninsula, and south-central Alaska regions as Paleo-Aleut ...
[28]
Aleut - Summary - eHRAF World Cultures
The Aleut are North American hunter-gatherers, possibly named from the Olutorski tribe or the Chukchee word for "island". They occupied the Aleutian Islands ...Missing: sustainable | Show results with:sustainable
[29]
History | Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association
The Native people of the greater Aleutian Islands region refer to themselves by two names, Unangax̂ and Aleut, the former in their own language, Unangam tunuu, ...
[30]
Cultural Heritage of the Aleuts - SERC (Carleton)
May 11, 2006 · Historians and archaeologists have estimated that the Aleut population was between 15,000-18,000 in the early 1700s.
[31]
Russian Discovery | Alaska | Articles and Essays | Meeting of Frontiers
Sailing in two ships, Bering and Chirikov landed at several places along the Aleutian Islands and the coast of the North American mainland between June and ...
[32]
Bering Expedition Landing Site National Historic Landmark
Mar 15, 2021 · Under Captain Commander Vitus Bering, the two ships in this venture, St. Peter and St. Paul, sailed west from Kamchatka in the summer of 1741.
[33]
Promyshlenniki, Siberians, Alaskans, and Catastrophic Change in ...
Steller's sea cow was entirely extinct by 1768, and hunters had annihilated some sea otter populations as early as the 1750s.
[34]
cultural resources of the aleutian region - NPS History
Jul 1, 1976 · ... Aleut ... Historically, Attu was one of the first islands to feel the effects of. Russian fur trading activities in the western Aleutians.
[35]
[PDF] Part II - National Archives
During this offensive, American military commanders in Alaska ordered the evacuation of Aleuts on the remaining islands to places of relative safety. The Aleut ...
[36]
Purchase of Alaska, 1867 - Office of the Historian
The purchase of Alaska in 1867 marked the end of Russian efforts to expand trade and settlements to the Pacific coast of North America.
[37]
[PDF] Smooth Sheet Bathymetry of the Aleutian Islands - NOAA
surveys in the Near Islands, which required shifts of about 671 m to the ... 780,000 km2 or 76% of total study area. Data Quality. Data quality appears ...<|separator|>
[38]
[PDF] Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska - ERIC
the natives, in 1900 placed a herd of reindeer on the island. A mission of the Presbyterian Church has been maintained here since 1892. During the short ...
[39]
Invasion of Kiska (U.S. National Park Service)
Aug 8, 2024 · While Attu was occupied by Japanese Army personnel on the following day, a navy garrison and a construction battalion were landed on Kiska and ...
[40]
WarMuseum.ca - The Aleutians Campaign, 1942-1943 - Operations
In June 1942, some 8,500 Japanese personnel, supported by naval forces, occupied the islands of Attu and Kiska, American parts of Alaska at the western end of ...
[41]
The Little Known Battles of Attu And Kiska: Retaking The Only US ...
Jan 14, 2025 · Japanese troops quietly invaded and took over two of the Aleutian Islands, considered to be North American soil, with barely any resistance.<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Battle of Attu (U.S. National Park Service)
Aug 8, 2024 · Of the 40 captives, 16 (40%) died from disease and starvation. In May 1943, after a prolonged air campaign, U.S. troops piled into transport ...The Invasion · Retaking Attu · Counterattack
[43]
Remembering the Aleutian Campaign of World War II
May 11, 2018 · In mid-1942 Japanese forces attacked the Aleutians, a series of islands running southwest from the Alaska Peninsula.
[44]
7ID and the Invasion of Attu | Article | The United States Army
May 11, 2022 · A total of 549 Americans gave their lives for Attu, with another 1,148 wounded, and 2,100 evacuated for disease and non-battle injuries (mostly ...
[45]
Mysterious Withdrawal From Kiska - February 1958 Vol. 84/2/660
Immediately following the Japanese invasions, Kiska, Shemya, and Amchitka were found suitable for building airstrips, while Attu was ruled out. The initial ...
[46]
Operation COTTAGE: First Special Service Force, Kiska Campaign
The Japanese invaded and occupied the Aleutian islands of Attu and Kiska on 6 and 7 June, 1942, to draw U.S. naval strength away from its main effort against ...
[47]
Attu Battlefield and U.S. Army and Navy Airfields National Historic ...
Mar 20, 2024 · Post-battle bombing raids on Japanese territory from Attu tied up significant numbers of Japanese defense forces and demonstrated that the Home ...<|separator|>
[48]
Shemya Air Force Base photograph album, circa 1946 - Archives West
Apr 19, 2018 · The Shemya Air Force Base was built in 1943 on the western tip of Alaska's Aleutian Islands near Attu to act as a critical airport and ...
[49]
The Wartime Internment of Native Alaskans | New Orleans
Jun 30, 2022 · At the outset of the Aleutian Islands campaign, 800 native Unangan were removed and interned in squalid camps from 1942 through 1945.
[50]
Attu's Lost Village: Descendants of Aleut Community Relocated ...
With the closing of the Casco Cove Coast Guard Station in 2010, a pre-GPS communications station, Attu is no longer inhabited. Most of Attu Island is within the ...
[51]
[PDF] 2010 Census Demographic Profile for Attu Station CDP
2010 Census Demographic Profile for Attu Station CDP. Population by Age and Sex. Total. Male. Female. Total. 21. 21. 0. Under 5 years. 0. 0. 0. 5 to 9 years. 0.Missing: closure | Show results with:closure<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
Bleak, mountainous Attu had a prewar population of 47 ... - HistoryNet
Bleak, mountainous Attu had a prewar population of 47 people, most of whom lived in Attu village on the shore of Chichagof Harbor.Missing: pre | Show results with:pre
[53]
Pre-WWII Attu
Dec 15, 2016 · At this time, Attu's population consisted of several Blue Fox, forty-five native Aleuts, and two Americans: Foster Jones, a radio technician ...
[54]
Shemya Island at a glance - Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson
Sep 3, 2008 · Eareckson currently supports approximately 160 contractor personnel, but its population may increase to 220 personnel in the summer months due ...
[55]
130 soldiers deploy to Alaska's Aleutian Islands in response to ...
Sep 16, 2024 · 130 soldiers deploy to Alaska's Aleutian Islands in response to Russian, Chinese probes of Arctic region. Portions of three Army units have ...
[56]
Eareckson Air Station - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 20, 2011 · Shemya was originally intended as a B-29 base for the bombing of Japan. The present day 10,000-foot runway and Birchwood hangars were ...
[57]
US eyes Aleutian military revival as Russia, China ... - Alaska Beacon
May 5, 2025 · At its peak, the island was home to 6,000 military personnel ... Eareckson Air Station on Shemya hosts a 10,000-foot (3,000-meter) runway and ...
[58]
Video - Loran Station Attu Decommissioning Ceremony - DVIDS
Dec 19, 2013 · ATTU ISLAND, Alaska - Loran Station Attu was decommissioned on Aug. 27, 2010, after 66 years of service. Attu was the last of six Alaska ...
[59]
[PDF] Site Compliance Report USCG LORSTAs Attu Island
2010. LORAN-C signal is terminated on Attu Island. Tower demolished; LORAN-C Station officially decommissioned. Page 18. 2015 Site Compliance Report. USCG LORAN ...<|separator|>
[60]
Former Japanese War Cemetery Attu - TracesOfWar.com
This temporary cemetery held the remains of 261 Japanese soldiers and officers. The remains were exhumed and reburied at Fort Richardson in 1946 and cremated ...
[61]
Attu Airfield (Alexai Point, Casco Field, NAS Attu, CGS Casco Cove ...
Aug 27, 2025 · Attu Airfield, located on Alexai Point, was used as a fighter base during WWII. Today, it is a small airport called Coast Guard Station Casco ...
[62]
Directions - Aleutian Islands World War II National Historic Area ...
Oct 4, 2024 · The Aleutian Islands WWII National Historic Area is located on Amaknak Island, which is easily accessed from the nearby island of Unalaska and major community ...
[63]
Tail end of the chain, tip of the sword: Eareckson AS
Jul 21, 2009 · Isolated from any electrical grid, Eareckson must generate its own electricity. Eareckson has an 18 megawatt capable power plant that was ...
[64]
Site Report: Eareckson Air Station OT48
Site OT048 is the Water Gallery and collection point of potable water used at Eareckson Air Station located on the north side of the airfield on Shemya Island, ...
[65]
Bases on the Aleutian Islands Would Project U.S. Power Across the ...
Shemya Island in the western Aleutians hosts Eareckson Air Station, which is named after the World War II colonel who led the air campaign against Japanese ...
[66]
Pacific Cod Trawl Cooperative Program - NOAA Fisheries
Jan 15, 2025 · Pacific cod is one of the most abundant and valuable groundfish species harvested in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands Management Area ...
[67]
Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) Crab Fisheries
Resources for Fishing · Commercial Fishing · Recreational Fishing · Subsistence Fishing · Fishery Management Info · Permits & Forms · Rules & Regulations by ...Noaa Fisheries Crab... · State Of Alaska Crab... · Prohibited Species Catch...
[68]
Aleutian Islands Tundra | One Earth
Other plants include mountain-cranberry, bog and dwarf blueberry, mountain avens, cassiope, narrow-leaf Labrador-tea, Aleutian mountain-heath, sedges, lichens, ...
[69]
[PDF] Vegetation of Amchitka Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska
The following numbers of plant taxa are reported to occur on the island: Vascular plants, 198; bryophytes, 153, lichens,. 84; fungi, 25; and algae, 173; total ...
[70]
[PDF] The Alaska Vegetation Classification - Forest Service
Central Aleutian tundra: ecological manifestations of maritime tundra landscapes in the central Aleutian islands (Amchitka, Adak), Alaska. Final Rep ...
[71]
Origins of Varied Floristic Compositions in the Western Aleutian and ...
Apr 27, 2016 · the Western Aleutian Islands are represented by 386 plant species over ~820 square miles of island area (0.47 species/square mile), while the ...
[72]
https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/myosotis_asiatica.shtml
[73]
Alpine Azalea - Kalmia procumbens - Alaska Wildflowers
The alpine azalea is a mat-forming evergreen shrub found in subarctic, circumpolar regions in North America. Flowers are 5-petaled, pink, with 5 stamen.
[74]
https://plants.alaska.gov/pdf/AssessmentofRevegetationAleutianIslands.pdf
[75]
Numerical Classification of the Coastal Vegetation of Attu Island ...
The vascular flora of the Aleutian Islands comprises ca. 530 species,. 70 % of which are found in both Kamchatka and Alaska. Therefore, Attu Island, the ...
[76]
Alpine forget-me-not (Myosotis asiatica) - USDA Forest Service
The deep blue petals are contrasted with a bright-yellow center, which give forget-me-nots their special attractive appearance.Missing: summer | Show results with:summer
[77]
[PDF] Featured Species-associated Tundra Habitats: Arctic, Alpine and ...
The dominant plant species of tundra habitats are sedges, low and dwarf shrubs, and graminoids interspersed with forbs, in addition to mat and cushion-forming ...
[78]
[PDF] Assessment of Revegetation on the Aleutian Islands of Adak ...
Lupine, Beach wildrye and Beach pea are the common invading species in areas that have been seeded with the hairgrass-red fescue mix. Because Shemya is so small ...
[79]
The Aleutians: Observing Recent Floristic Changes Along the ...
Dec 15, 2021 · The loss of cryptobiotic crusts, which otherwise hold the open soil surface in place, likely has resulted in increased erosion of the ...<|separator|>
[80]
Plant diversity dynamics over space and time in a warming Arctic
Apr 30, 2025 · Rapid shifts in grassland communities ... Woody plant encroachment intensifies under climate change across tundra and savanna biomes.
[81]
Seabird, fisheries, marine mammal, and oceanographic ...
Although islands in the Aleutians are known to support some of the highest densities of seabirds in the world, their remoteness has limited systematic ...
[82]
[PDF] Alaskan Seabirds - NOAA
Aleutian Tern. 7. Glaucous Gull. 9. Red-Legged Kittiwake. 14. Dark ... Shearwaters and Fulmars fly near the surface of the water, alternating flaps ...
[83]
Bald Eagle: Haliaeetus leucocephalus by Murie - Unimak Area
For some reason, the bald eagle is scarce in the Near Islands- including Attu, Agattu, and Semichi. We observed a single pair on Agattu in 1937, but we saw ...Missing: Shemya | Show results with:Shemya
[84]
Northern Sea Otter: Federally Threatened Listing Information, Alaska ...
Sea otter populations in the Aleutian Islands were some of the first to recover following the end of the fur trade. At one time, over 80% of the world's sea ...
[85]
Aleutian Islands Wilderness
The Aleutian Islands Wilderness, designated in 1980, has 1,300,000 acres, consists of over 200 islands with tundra, and has over 10 million nesting birds. Over ...
[86]
Marine Mammals | Our Expert Guide To Whales, Dolphins,…
Some marine mammals include Pacific White-sided Dolphin, Humpback Whale, Harbor Seal, Blue Whale, Sea Otter, Narwhal, Beluga Whale, and Killer Whale.
[87]
Arctic Fox Species Profile, Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Foxes were introduced to many islands during the fur farming era of Alaska's history, and are now considered an invasive species and being eradicated from some ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
[88]
Seabirds Rejoice! Rat-Free Aleutian Islands Are Possible
Oct 1, 2024 · Seabirds Rejoice! Rat-Free Aleutian Islands Are Possible ; Whiskered Auklet · Aethia pygmaea. Illustration for Whiskered Auklet ; Tufted Puffin.
[89]
Bird Conservation Regions Map - NABCI
Feb 28, 2020 · Bird Conservation Region 1 – Aleutian/Bering Sea Islands. Included in this region are the Aleutian Islands, extending westward from the ...
[90]
Mystery in the Western Aleutian Islands - NOAA Fisheries
Nov 12, 2015 · They tend to haul-out on low-lying rocky areas surrounded by kelp, often alone or in small numbers unlike sea lions which form rookeries,” said ...Missing: pinniped | Show results with:pinniped
[91]
Sea otter population collapse in southwest Alaska: assessing ...
Jun 15, 2021 · Post hoc analyses and interpretations of these data initially suggested killer whale (Orcinus orca) predation as the cause of the decline (Estes ...
[92]
Revisiting a Marine Mammal Mystery, with the Help of New Data and ...
Sep 21, 2022 · USGS researchers had observed several killer whales, also known as orcas, attacking sea otters around this time, something they hadn't seen in ...
[93]
Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
The Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge stretches from the spectacular volcanic islands of the Aleutian chain to the Inside Passage, and north to the ...Contact Us · Visit Us · Activities · View Details
[94]
[PDF] ALASKA NATIONAL INTEREST LANDS CONSERVATION ACT ...
Dec 22, 2017 · AN ACT To provide for the designation and conservation of certain public lands in the State of Alaska, including the designation of units of the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[95]
Rat Free Aleutians | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Sep 20, 2024 · The mission of Rat Free Aleutians is to collaboratively prevent new introductions of non-native rats and remove existing infestations.
[96]
Indirect effects of invasive rat removal result in recovery of island ...
Mar 8, 2021 · Eleven years after invasive Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) were eradicated from Hawadax Island, in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, ...
[97]
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Southwest Alaska ...
Sep 6, 2013 · The goal of the recovery plan is to control or reduce threats to the southwest Alaska DPS of the northern sea otter to the extent that this DPS ...
[98]
A Few Surprises in Alaska's Marine Environment in 2024
Dec 11, 2024 · Aleutian Islands · Winter sea surface temperatures in 2023–2024 were among the ten warmest since 1900. · Strong winds and storminess from winter ...
[99]
[PDF] Climate Change and Alaska Fisheries
The publi- cation focuses on fisheries effects attributable to progressive long-term warming and also looks at effects of transitory climate variability phenom ...
[100]
Army Corps of Engineers begins cleanup of landing hub at Attu Island
Aug 5, 2016 · About 48 of the FUDS properties are scattered throughout the Aleutians. Many of the identified properties in Alaska are remnants of World War II ...
[101]
WWII contaminants on an Aleutian island are one step closer to ...
Nov 28, 2021 · After a summer of field work, Great Sitkin Island is now closer to being cleaned up after functioning as a naval refueling station during World War II and ...
[102]
Archaeology in the Aleutians | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Cleaning up World War II sites, restoring habitat post-war reveals ancient roots of today's Indigenous people while testing new methods.
[103]
Attuans' WWII Experience - Aleutian Islands World War II National ...
Aug 5, 2024 · Attu Island is the westernmost island within the Aleutian Island chain. Archeologists estimate that Attu served as a home to Unangax̂ people ...Missing: archaeological | Show results with:archaeological
[104]
Nearshore Marine Ecosystem Research | U.S. Geological Survey
These data are part of the Gulf Watch Alaska (GWA) long-term monitoring program. This dataset consists of date, time, and temperature measurements from ...