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Reindeer herding

Reindeer herding is a pastoral practice centered on the breeding, management, and migration of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) by indigenous peoples in the circumpolar Arctic and subarctic regions, providing essential resources for food, clothing, tools, transport, and trade.^[1] Conducted across nine countries including Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Alaska, Mongolia, China, Canada, and Greenland, it sustains approximately 100,000 herders and their families who oversee around 3.4 million animals through seasonal movements across vast natural pastures.^[2]^[1] Originating from prehistoric hunting economies and evolving into organized herding by the Late Iron Age among groups such as the Sámi in Fennoscandia and Siberian ethnicities like the Nenets, Evenki, and Chukchi, the practice integrates deep ecological knowledge with animal husbandry techniques including selective breeding, marking via ear notches, and protection from predators.^[3]^[4] These communities, numbering over 20 distinct indigenous groups, rely on the reindeer's adaptability to extreme conditions for year-round calving, milking, and slaughter cycles that support both subsistence needs and emerging market sales of meat and hides.^[1] While reindeer herding exemplifies resilient land stewardship through migratory patterns that prevent overgrazing and promote tundra regeneration, it faces empirical pressures from climate variability—such as increased rain-on-snow events forming ice barriers to forage access—and competing land uses like mining and infrastructure, which disrupt traditional ranges and herd viability.^[5]^[6] Regulatory frameworks, varying by nation, have historically shifted the activity from purely subsistence to commercial operations, yet persistent challenges underscore the causal links between environmental changes, policy interventions, and the sustainability of this ancient livelihood.^[7]^[8]

Origins and History

Domestication and Early Development

Reindeer domestication originated in the Eurasian Arctic, with the earliest archaeological evidence emerging from sites in northern Siberia approximately 2,000 years ago. At the Ust’-Polui site on the Yamal Peninsula, artifacts such as L-shaped barbed antler objects interpreted as training headgear for young reindeer to pull sleds, along with antler swivels for attaching harnesses to ropes and fragments of built-up sleds, indicate early efforts to control and utilize reindeer for transport.^[9]^[10] These findings, radiocarbon dated to around the 1st millennium BCE to early CE, predate previous estimates of domestication tied to genetic shifts in the 11th century CE, highlighting material culture's role in initial human-reindeer co-adaptation before pronounced phenotypic changes.^[11] The transition from hunting wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) to herding domestic strains was driven by the need for nutritional and logistical reliability in the taiga-tundra's variable conditions, where seasonal migrations and low prey densities made opportunistic hunting insufficient for sustained human groups. Early herders selectively managed herds to mitigate famine risks, leveraging reindeer's migratory patterns for milk, meat, and eventually draught power, marking a shift toward pastoralism that enhanced mobility and caloric predictability.^[3] Genetic analyses reveal subtle divergence between wild caribou and domestic reindeer, with evidence of human selection for traits like reduced flight distance and docility, though overall genetic diversity remains comparable, suggesting a gradual process without strong bottlenecks.^[12] These adaptations likely began with corralling and selective culling rather than full genetic isolation, as Iron Age sites on the Yamal Peninsula show tools and structures consistent with herd containment.^[13] While theories propose even earlier roots east of Lake Baikal among Tungusic precursors, direct archaeological confirmation remains elusive, with Bronze Age representations in Siberian petroglyphs depicting hunted rather than managed reindeer. The Siberian hearth's empirical primacy underscores environmental pressures—prolonged winters and forage scarcity—as causal factors privileging herd control over pure predation, laying foundations for expansive pastoral systems.^[14]

Expansion and Key Historical Events

Reindeer herding expanded westward from its Siberian origins among Tungusic-speaking peoples like the Evenki, reaching Scandinavia through interactions and migrations involving Sámi groups by the early medieval period, around 800–1000 CE, facilitating adaptation to northern Eurasian taiga and tundra environments via transport and subsistence uses.^[15]^[16] In 1892, American missionary and educator Sheldon Jackson initiated the importation of domesticated reindeer to Alaska, shipping approximately 170 animals from Siberia along with Chukchi herders to instruct local Inuit communities in herding techniques, aimed at alleviating famine conditions exacerbated by the decline of whale populations following intensive commercial whaling in the late 19th century.^[17]^[18]^[19] Soviet collectivization policies, implemented from the late 1920s through the 1950s, consolidated small-scale indigenous herding into state farms, initially causing 30–50% herd losses (from about 2.2 million to under 1.5 million reindeer by 1935) due to disruptions in traditional mobility and management, but later enabling expansion to peaks exceeding 7 million animals by the mid-20th century through centralized breeding and transport infrastructure, albeit with persistent inefficiencies from bureaucratic oversight and forced sedentism.^[20]^[21]^[22] Following the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, privatization fragmented large collective farms into smaller enterprises, leading to herd declines from around 2.5 million to under 2 million reindeer by the early 2000s, compounded by economic instability, reduced state subsidies, and increased poaching as herders shifted toward subsistence amid market disruptions.^[23]^[24]^[25] In Alaska, throughout the 20th century and into the 2000s, introduced reindeer herds faced recurrent commingling with wild caribou populations, particularly the expanding Western Arctic Caribou Herd, resulting in 75–100% losses in multiple Seward Peninsula herds (over 12,000 animals documented in some cases) due to interbreeding, migration outmixing, and competition for winter range, with sharp declines noted from the 1920s onward and intensified by caribou herd growth from 75,000 in 1976 to 463,000 by 1996.^[26]^[27]^[28] Among Mongolia's Dukha people, reindeer herding endured Soviet-influenced sedentarization campaigns starting in the late 1950s, which forcibly relocated families and reduced herds through collectivization, yet many reverted to nomadic practices post-1990, maintaining small-scale taiga herding despite ongoing pressures from modernization and resource competition.^[29]^[30]^[31]

Practices and Techniques

Herding Methods and Seasonal Cycles

Reindeer herding employs nomadic methods centered on directing herds along established migration routes dictated by seasonal forage availability and weather patterns, leveraging herders' empirical understanding of reindeer behavior and landscape features for efficient movement rather than stationary enclosures typical of sedentary livestock systems. Control is maintained through the use of herding dogs, particularly spitz-type breeds among the Sámi that excel at gathering and maneuvering dispersed animals, supplemented by temporary fences for corralling during roundups or to channel movement across boundaries.^[32]^[1] The annual cycle commences in spring with migrations to calving grounds, where females give birth in protected areas before proceeding to summer pastures on elevated plateaus rich in lichens and new growth, optimizing nutritional intake for lactation and fawn development. Autumn involves the rutting period, followed by selective culling to manage herd size and prepare for winter, with herders identifying weaker animals based on observed vigor. Winter entails relocation to forested or lowland areas where reindeer excavate snow for lichens, navigating routes that minimize exposure to deep drifts and winds. In tundra-based systems, such as those in northern Russia, annual migrations span 1,000–3,000 km, far exceeding the 200–400 km typical in Scandinavian mountain herding.^[33]^[34]^[35] Herd compositions vary by scale and ecology: commercial operations in Russian tundra regions manage groups of 1,000–3,000 or more animals to capitalize on vast grazing expanses, while subsistence units among indigenous groups maintain 200–500 for family needs, with success hinging on precise terrain navigation over ceremonial practices. Tundra herding features extended transhumance between distant seasonal ranges, enabling large aggregations, whereas taiga variants involve shorter routes and smaller bands adapted to forested constraints. Among the Chukchi, tundra practices incorporate reindeer for pack transport to sustain mobility across treeless expanses, distinct from Sámi emphases on intensive seasonal culling for meat preservation.^[36]^[37]^[1]

Animal Management and Husbandry

Reindeer calves are marked by making specific incisions in their ears with a knife shortly after birth, a procedure that causes no pain and serves to identify ownership within herding families or siidas, as each group maintains unique patterns of cuts.^[38]^[39] These earmarks, combined occasionally with fur marks or tags, enable tracking of individual animals across extensive ranges and facilitate division of herds during slaughter or distribution.^[40] Castration of excess males is a core husbandry practice in Fennoscandian and Siberian reindeer herding, performed by partially or fully removing testicular tissue to promote docility, reduce aggression during rut, and ease handling for tasks like transport or drafting.^[41]^[42] The extent of castration varies, with partial methods yielding stronger animals better suited for digging through deeper snow layers in altered winter conditions, thereby supporting herd survival amid environmental shifts.^[43] This intervention, rooted in reproductive control, prevents surplus males from disrupting breeding dynamics and consuming resources without contributing to population growth. Herd viability depends on maintaining female-biased sex ratios, typically around 1:7 males to females in managed populations, allowing a single breeding male to service multiple females efficiently during the short rut period dictated by reindeer reproductive biology.^[44] Herders achieve this through selective slaughter of young males and retention of only prime breeders, optimizing calf production rates essential for sustaining herd numbers against natural losses. Selective breeding targets traits like growth rate and body mass, with adult reindeer often culled at live weights of 50-100 kg to maximize meat yield while preserving genetic lines for resilience and productivity.^[45]^[46] Predation by large carnivores such as wolves and bears poses a primary threat to calves, with unmanaged losses ranging from 5% to 70% annually, predominantly from early-life vulnerability.^[47] Mitigation relies on direct intervention, including deployment of herding dogs to deter attacks and licensed rifle use for culling problem individuals, as passive measures fail to counteract opportunistic predation in open tundra.^[48]^[49] These evidence-based tactics, informed by loss data, prioritize reducing calf mortality to 10-20% or lower, ensuring demographic stability over unproven welfare-focused alternatives. Disease management emphasizes prevention of bacterial infections like necrobacillosis through hygiene during handling and culling affected animals, though widespread vaccination protocols remain limited in extensive systems.^[50]

Products, Utilization, and Economic Uses

Reindeer herding yields primary products centered on meat, which forms the bulk of commercial output in major regions like Russia, where herders are compensated at rates of RUB 450 per kilogram for premium categories and RUB 150 per kilogram for standard procurement.^[51] Slaughter yields typically produce 40-50 kg of meat per animal, derived from carcass weights averaging 44 kg for young males under supplemented feeding conditions.^[52] Hides supply materials for garments and upholstery, while antlers enter international trade, particularly for traditional Asian medicine markets.^[51] Secondary utilizations include milk production, with lactating females yielding 1-1.5 liters daily and up to 100 kg over a full cycle, though harvesting remains labor-intensive and limited in scale.^[53] Reindeer provide draft power for sled transport, achieving sustained speeds of 10-15 km/h under load in traditional contexts, enabling mobility across tundra terrains.^[54] Economically, Russia's approximately 1.8 million-head herds underpin an industry reliant on state-backed sales channels, with annual outputs like 400 tons of meat targeted for institutional supply in select districts, though overall profitability hinges on processing enhancements.^[55]^[56] In Alaska, commercial ventures peaked in the late 1920s, exporting nearly 6.5 million pounds of products—predominantly meat—before a sharp decline from the 1930s onward due to insufficient markets, wild caribou competition, and logistical barriers.^[57] Non-commercial uses encompass dung as a combustible fuel source and bones fashioned into tools and utensils, preserving self-sufficiency in remote herding camps. Contemporary adaptations feature income diversification via tourism, as seen among Sámi herders in Norway where sleigh rides and cultural experiences supplement core revenues for about 2,600 practitioners amid fluctuating meat markets. State subsidies in Russia and Scandinavia, including procurement guarantees and direct payments, prop up herd maintenance but obscure viability; post-Soviet subsidy cuts triggered herd crashes from millions to under 2 million, underscoring that without intervention, low productivity and high seasonal risks render many operations unprofitable on pure market terms.^[23]^[55]

Major Regions and Peoples

Sámi Herding in Scandinavia

Sámi reindeer herding in Scandinavia encompasses practices in Norway, Sweden, and Finland, where approximately 2,500 to 4,600 individuals actively participate across the region, organized into cooperative units known as siidas in Norway.^[58] Norway hosts the largest herds, with domestic reindeer populations exceeding 700,000 animals as of recent estimates, primarily managed through state-regulated siida cooperatives that allocate grazing lands and enforce harvest quotas to sustain ecological balance.^[6] In contrast, Sweden maintains around 260,000 reindeer, while Finland's herds number approximately 200,000, reflecting smaller-scale operations influenced by national borders established in the 18th and 19th centuries that fragmented traditional migration routes.^[59]^[60] Herding techniques adapt to the forest-tundra ecotone, involving seasonal migrations between summer pastures in higher elevations and winter grounds in sheltered valleys, supplemented by modern interventions like supplemental winter feeding to mitigate snow cover variability.^[61] Throughout the 20th century, the introduction of enclosures and fencing for predator control and selective breeding reduced free grazing areas by facilitating corral-based management, shifting from fully nomadic patterns to semi-intensive systems while preserving core migratory cycles.^[16] In Sweden and Finland, EU agricultural subsidies support operational costs, covering portions of feed, transport, and infrastructure, though exact proportions vary by district and year.^[62] Economically, Sámi herders derive primary income from reindeer meat production, with average annual earnings around €20,000 per active herder, often supplemented by secondary activities due to fluctuating market prices and low national-scale viability.^[63] Exports of reindeer meat constitute a key revenue stream, particularly from Norway where increased shipments to international markets have bolstered profitability since the early 2000s, alongside domestic sales in Sweden and Finland where 20-25% of production enters export channels.^[64]^[65] This reliance underscores the integration of traditional husbandry with state oversight and market dynamics, ensuring persistence amid environmental constraints.

Indigenous Herders in Russia and Siberia

Indigenous reindeer herding in Russia and Siberia is practiced by approximately 15 to 18 ethnic groups, including the Nenets, Chukchi, Evenki, and others, who collectively manage around 1.7 million head of domesticated reindeer as of 2019.^[66]^[56] These groups, primarily nomadic or semi-nomadic, rely on tundra and taiga ecosystems for large-scale pastoralism, with herds serving as the economic backbone through meat, hides, and transport. Soviet-era collectivization expanded herds to peaks exceeding 2 million by the 1990s, but post-Soviet privatization led to widespread disruptions, including herd fragmentation, ownership disputes, and a sharp decline in numbers due to market instability and loss of state subsidies rather than inherent flaws in traditional practices.^[8]^[23] The Nenets of the Yamal Peninsula in the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Okrug represent the largest reindeer herding population globally, overseeing herds numbering in the hundreds of thousands—estimated at around 700,000 animals in recent assessments—and sustaining nomadic migrations across vast tundra despite encroachment from natural gas extraction infrastructure.^[67]^[68] Their operations emphasize close herd supervision and seasonal movements, with family-based brigades herding animals in super-groups to optimize grazing and predator defense. In contrast, the Chukchi in Chukotka maintain about 200,000 reindeer focused on tundra pastoralism, demonstrating resilience through post-Soviet recovery; herd sizes have increased from lows in the 1990s, supported by roughly 1,500 active herders who integrate state investments in processing facilities while preserving communal herding structures.^[33]^[69] Evenki herders in taiga regions like Evenk Autonomous Okrug practice smaller-scale, transport-oriented herding, but populations have halved since the 1990s amid privatization chaos that dissolved collectives, spurred shifts to hunting, and eroded infrastructure without adequate private market support.^[70]^[71] This transition exposed vulnerabilities in family herds, which lacked the scale and logistics of Soviet sovkhozy, leading to poaching, slaughter for immediate needs, and reduced breeding viability. Adaptations across these groups include the adoption of motorized sleds and snowmobiles since the 1960s to supplement reindeer transport, enabling faster scouting and supply runs, though traditional ecological knowledge remains essential for navigating frozen terrain and managing herd health.^[72]^[22]

Herding in Alaska and Other Peripheral Regions

Reindeer herding was introduced to Alaska in the early 1890s through imports of approximately 1,300 animals from Siberia, spearheaded by missionary Sheldon Jackson to alleviate food shortages among Inuit populations facing caribou declines.^[73] The initiative expanded rapidly under U.S. government programs, with herds growing to over 640,000 by the late 1930s across western Alaska.^[74] Subsequent declines resulted from overgrazing, wolf predation, disease, and hybridization with wild caribou, which blurred genetic distinctions and complicated management; by the mid-20th century, populations had plummeted, and private ownership was restricted to Native Alaskans via the 1937 Reindeer Act.^[75] Today, herding persists on a small scale among Inupiat communities, with roughly 15,000–20,000 reindeer in domestic herds, primarily for subsistence meat, hides, and cultural continuity rather than commercial scale.^[76] In Mongolia's Khövsgöl Province, the Dukha, or Tsaatan, people practice nomadic reindeer husbandry with small herds totaling around 400 animals, using them for milk, transport, and as pack animals in the taiga forest.^[77] This subsistence-oriented system, adapted from Evenki traditions, faces existential threats from climate-induced permafrost thaw, which reduces arboreal lichen forage, alongside modernization drawing youth to urban jobs and restrictive conservation policies limiting grazing in protected areas.^[78] Similarly, in China's Heilongjiang Province, Evenki herders in the Greater Khingan Mountains manage approximately 1,000 reindeer across 20 families comprising about 234 individuals, emphasizing subsistence uses like riding, packing, and ritual practices tied to Tungusic shamanism.^[79] Herds have stabilized after mid-20th-century state interventions that shifted some from hunting to herding, but urbanization, forest logging disrupting lichen ecosystems, and assimilation policies continue to erode traditional nomadism, confining most to semi-sedentary villages.^[80] Peripheral introductions, such as on Alaska's southern Peninsula, highlight empirical constraints: without native ground and arboreal lichen mats—critical winter forage comprising up to 70% of diet—herds experienced rapid declines, with early 1930s peaks of 10,000 animals dropping sharply due to starvation and trampling-induced pasture degradation, often exceeding 50% annual losses in non-tundra ranges.^[81] These failures underscore causal dependencies on boreal ecosystems, where forage scarcity in southern or deforested latitudes amplifies vulnerability to icing events and overbrowsing, limiting sustainable persistence outside core Arctic adaptations.^[82]

Environmental Interactions

Ecological Role and Grazing Impacts

Reindeer grazing plays a key role in maintaining tundra ecosystem structure by limiting shrub expansion, which preserves open landscapes and associated biodiversity. In Arctic tundra, moderate grazing reduces shrub abundance, thereby increasing summer albedo and reflecting more solar radiation to mitigate local warming effects. For instance, studies in grazed areas show shrub cover reductions that enhance surface reflectivity compared to ungrazed exclosures. This process supports lichen-dominated communities, which are critical winter forage, with regeneration cycles sustained at densities of approximately 5–10 reindeer per km², allowing recovery without depletion.^[83]^[84] As ecosystem engineers, reindeer influence nutrient dynamics through trampling and fecal deposition, which expose mineral soil and recycle nitrogen to stimulate primary production. Fecal inputs elevate soil nitrogen availability, boosting vegetation growth by enhancing decomposition and microbial activity in grazed patches. Trampling disrupts soil crusts, promoting forb and grass establishment while preventing moss dominance, which can otherwise suppress diverse understory flora. These mechanisms foster heterogeneous vegetation mosaics that harbor higher plant species richness than in exclusion zones.^[85]^[68]^[86] Overgrazing remains uncommon in traditional nomadic systems but has occurred in confined or high-density setups, such as fenced pastures in Swedish herding districts, leading to localized lichen biomass declines. In such cases, persistent high densities correlate with slower vegetation recovery, though broader landscapes benefit from rotational grazing that avoids uniform degradation. Empirical data from long-term fences indicate that balanced herding pressures enhance overall forage quality and resilience without systemic harm.^[87]^[88]^[89]

Reindeer Herding and Climate Dynamics

Reindeer herding influences Arctic climate dynamics primarily through vegetation management that affects surface albedo and permafrost stability. Grazing by reindeer reduces shrub abundance and height, thereby increasing summer albedo in tundra ecosystems dominated by species such as Betula nana and Salix spp., which otherwise lower reflectivity by expanding dark foliage.^[90] This effect counters shrubification, a warming-amplifying process where increased shrub cover absorbs more solar radiation, as evidenced by experimental reductions in shrub biomass leading to higher surface reflectance during the growing season.^[90] In the Arctic, which has warmed nearly four times faster than the global average since 1979, such grazing-maintained albedo helps mitigate local radiative forcing.^[91] Grazing also slows permafrost thaw by limiting insulating vegetation layers that trap heat near the soil surface, potentially curbing methane emissions from anaerobic decomposition in thawing soils. In Siberian tundra experiments, including sites analogous to herded landscapes, ungulate grazing reduced peak-season methane fluxes while enhancing overall carbon cycling, as grazers compact snow and expose ground to colder winter temperatures.^[92] Models and field data indicate that herbivore presence preserves permafrost integrity against the Arctic's amplified warming, where thaw otherwise releases potent greenhouse gases; for instance, reindeer-induced vegetation removal decreases soil insulation, delaying thaw onset.^[93] Recent analyses affirm that herding mitigates shrub-driven warming feedbacks, with grazed areas showing suppressed woody encroachment despite rising temperatures.^[94] However, climate shifts impose trade-offs, as intensified rain-on-snow events—more frequent in recent decades—form ice layers that lock forage beneath, compelling herders to provide supplemental feed and elevating the practice's carbon footprint through hay production and transport emissions. These icing events exacerbate winter mortality and reduce natural grazing efficiency, indirectly amplifying emissions in managed herds.^[95] While herder mobility enables pursuit of viable pastures amid variability, net climate benefits hinge on balancing these dynamics against emission critiques that overlook albedo and permafrost preservation.^[95]

Challenges and Controversies

Climate Change Effects and Adaptations

Increased frequency of freeze-thaw cycles in Arctic winters has led to the formation of basal ice layers beneath snowpack, restricting reindeer access to lichens and other forage, which in turn elevates starvation risks and reduces calf survival rates by 20-40% in affected herds.^[6]^[96] For instance, in Norway during the winter of 2019-2020, such conditions contributed to widespread reindeer losses, with herders reporting die-offs exceeding typical variability and linking them to warmer, wetter patterns disrupting traditional grazing.^[97] These impacts stem from causal mechanisms where mild spells followed by refreezing create impermeable barriers, a phenomenon observed more acutely since the 1990s amid regional warming of 1-2°C.^[98] Shrub expansion, or shrubification, in tundra ecosystems—driven by longer growing seasons and reduced snow cover—has diminished lichen-dominated pastures preferred by reindeer, with satellite observations indicating localized reductions in suitable grazing area by 10-20% over decades in parts of Fennoscandia and Siberia.^[99]^[100] This shift favors taller woody vegetation over low-lying forbs and mosses, altering forage quality and forcing herders to extend migration distances or accept lower nutritional intake, though intensive grazing can partially counteract expansion by promoting graminoid dominance.^[68]^[101] Reindeer herders have responded through traditional knowledge systems, including observations of wind patterns and seasonal indicators to predict icing events and adjust calving sites preemptively.^[97] The EALÁT project, initiated in the 2000s under the International Polar Year, documented over 50 indigenous strategies across Arctic communities, such as flexible herd splitting and selective breeding for hardier animals, emphasizing empirical adaptations honed over centuries rather than external interventions.^[102]^[33] Bioeconomic models project potential harvesting profit declines of 40-50% or more by 2050 for Sámi herders in Norway and Sweden under moderate warming scenarios (RCP4.5), primarily from reduced animal weights and calf recruitment, though optimistic pathways show gains from extended summer grazing offsetting losses.^[103]^[6] These estimates vary widely due to unmodeled factors like herder mobility, which has historically buffered populations against temperature fluctuations of ±2°C during past Holocene variability, as evidenced by archaeological and genetic records of sustained pastoralism.^[104]^[105] Such resilience underscores that while current trends pose verifiable pressures, alarmist narratives overlook adaptive precedents, with causal realism pointing to integrated land management as key to viability rather than uniform decline.^[106]

Land Use Conflicts and Development Pressures

In Sámi reindeer herding regions of Scandinavia, expanding mining operations and wind farm developments have fragmented traditional grazing lands, with approximately 85% of northern Fennoscandia affected by at least one land-use pressure and 60% by multiple pressures, including infrastructure that disrupts migration corridors and lichen pastures essential for winter forage.^[107] In Sweden, only about 4% of reindeer grazing land across Sweden, Norway, and Finland remains undisturbed by encroachments such as wind power installations and mining sites, leading to reduced pasture availability and increased herding costs.^[108] Recent Swedish case law has grappled with these tensions, recognizing Sámi land rights tied to herding but balancing them against non-exclusive development permits, as seen in ongoing disputes over mineral extraction that prioritize economic extraction over indefinite pastoral claims.^[109] Similar pressures affect Nenets herders in Russia's Yamal Peninsula, where gas pipelines and extraction facilities have constrained migration routes, forcing reindeer to navigate under or around infrastructure that fragments tundra pastures and elevates risks during calving seasons.^[110] The Yamal LNG project, operational since 2017, exemplifies this, with pipelines hemming in nomadic paths historically used for over a millennium, though herders have adapted by altering routes in some cases.^[35] Development pursuits offer empirical economic advantages, as Yamal LNG generated over 30,000 on-site jobs during construction and contributed to more than 100,000 nationwide, contrasting with reindeer herding's marginal productivity and limited GDP share in comparable economies like Norway, where it supports few households amid broader resource extraction dominance.^[111] Compensation models, including negotiated agreements between developers and herding communities, provide financial mitigation in Sweden, but evidence indicates herders' viability persists through market-driven relocations and incentives rather than static land locks, as adaptive strategies around infrastructure demonstrate resilience without halting regional growth.^[112]^[113]

Socio-Economic Viability and Policy Debates

Reindeer herding often yields economic returns 20-50% lower than alternative rural livelihoods such as forestry or wage labor in Scandinavia, with net revenues further eroded by volatile meat prices and high operational costs including fuel for snowmobiles and supplemental feeding.^[114]^[115] In Russia, post-Soviet privatization introduced confused ownership structures, contributing to a roughly 50% decline in domestic reindeer numbers from peaks of over 2 million in the late 1980s to about 1 million by the early 2000s, as small family enterprises collapsed without clear property rights to incentivize maintenance.^[23]^[116] Soviet-era collectivization, reliant on state subsidies and quotas that prioritized herd expansion over efficiency, masked underlying productivity failures but left a legacy of overgrazing and dependency, with post-collapse transitions exacerbating losses due to the absence of individual accountability.^[117] Policy debates center on balancing communal traditions with market-oriented reforms, where Scandinavian quota systems—such as Norway's annual caps on herd sizes and culls—curb overpopulation risks but limit herder autonomy and market responsiveness, often resulting in underutilized harvests and suppressed incentives for innovation.^[118]^[119] Evidence from Alaska highlights successes of private ownership models, where individual herders since the early 20th century have sustained viable operations through personal investment and selective breeding, contrasting with communal setups prone to free-rider problems and herd dilution.^[120] Proponents of privatization argue it fosters efficiency via defined property rights, as seen in stable private herds outperforming collective ones in productivity metrics, though critics in communalist frameworks contend it undermines cultural cohesion.^[121] While cultural identity tied to herding holds unquantifiable value for participants, empirical trends underscore economic unsustainability, including an exodus of youth—particularly under 30—from herding communities, driven by limited job prospects and urban opportunities, with studies noting high out-migration rates in Sámi areas exceeding 70% for young adults in rural Arctic settings.^[122]^[123] This generational shift signals the need for policies enhancing viability, such as clearer property delineations to attract investment, rather than perpetuating subsidy-dependent communalism that has failed to stem declines in both Russia and Scandinavia.^[8]

Modern Developments

Innovations in Management and Technology

GPS satellite collars, deployed widely in Scandinavian reindeer herding since the 2010s, allow real-time tracking of herd movements over expansive Arctic ranges, integrating GPS positioning with long-range wireless networks to locate animals and detect carcasses promptly.^[124]^[125] In Finland and Norway, these devices, such as those using Globalstar IoT solutions introduced in 2019, provide herders with automated mapping and collision prevention data, particularly against trains, thereby minimizing mortality from dispersal and hazards.^[126]^[127] Drones have emerged as a complementary tool for surveillance and herding efficiency, exemplified by the AirHerd project initiated in the 2020s across Sámi communities in Norway, Sweden, and Finland, where unmanned aerial vehicles equipped with cameras access remote rangelands to identify, collect, and drive reindeer herds.^[128]^[129] This technology offers an aerial vantage for monitoring predator threats and herd dynamics, reducing search times in challenging terrains compared to ground-based methods, though adoption remains limited by battery life and weather constraints.^[130] Selective breeding initiatives in Finland, guided by research at facilities like the Kutuharju field station operated by Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), emphasize genetic improvements in traits such as growth rates, meat yield, and calving success through pedigree tracking and controlled matings.^[131]^[132] Herders apply criteria like body size and fertility in selection decisions, supported by individual marking and production records, which have incrementally enhanced herd productivity amid regional variations in practices.^[133] Motorized aids, including snowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles adopted post-1960s in Finland and Norway, have streamlined rounding and transport tasks, substantially cutting physical labor demands on herders while enabling operations over larger areas.^[134]^[135] However, these mechanized tools elevate costs through fuel consumption, maintenance, and environmental impacts like soil compaction, prompting debates on balancing efficiency gains with economic viability.^[136] Market-oriented innovations include direct exports of reindeer meat to EU markets, as seen in certifications enabling shipments from Russian Sámi cooperatives to Finland since 2021, and protected designations like "Lapin Poron Liha" for Finnish products, which underscore quality and origin.^[137]^[138] Branding efforts, such as the 2018 Slow Food Presidium for Sámi cured reindeer meat (gurpi), promote artisanal and sustainable attributes, facilitating premium pricing in niche European segments despite logistical challenges in supply chains.^[139]

Sustainability Efforts and Future Prospects

The Association of World Reindeer Herders, established in 1997, facilitates international cooperation among indigenous herding communities by sharing data on best practices, climate adaptation strategies, and policy advocacy to enhance long-term viability.^[140] This organization represents approximately 97% of global reindeer herders and has contributed to circumpolar initiatives focused on sustainable management amid environmental pressures.^[141] Recent resilience-building efforts include the Reindeer Herding and Resilience (RHR) project, which from 2023 onward integrates indigenous knowledge with capacity development for youth herders to address land degradation and permafrost thaw, aiming to bolster community adaptability without relying on static preservation models.^[142] These initiatives emphasize flexible responses, such as diversified income streams, over rigid traditionalism, with empirical evidence showing improved outcomes in groups that incorporate market mechanisms for herd management.^[143] Future prospects hinge on hybrid approaches combining herding with supplementary activities like ecotourism, which provide economic buffers and have demonstrated viability through increased herder incomes in regions like northern Sweden, where tourism involvement correlates with higher diversification rates among active practitioners.^[144] Climate projections indicate potential herd reductions due to altered grazing and weather patterns, with some models forecasting substantial declines in productivity, though offsets via venison processing and market expansion—such as targeted slaughter increases up to 20% in processing hubs—support niche sustainability for adaptive operations.^[6]^[145] Reindeer herding's limited scale in the global economy underscores the need for pragmatic, entrepreneurially oriented strategies, as evidenced by successes in neo-entrepreneurial adaptations that prioritize economic resilience over expansive growth.^[146]

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Earliest Evidence of Reindeer Domestication Found in Arctic Siberia
Ust'-Polui, Tiutei-Sale I, ...
[10]
Reindeer were domesticated much earlier than previously thought ...
Jun 12, 2020 · A University of Alberta anthropologist has found what might be the earliest evidence for domestication of reindeer in the Eurasian Arctic.
[11]
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10816-020-09455-w
[12]
Resequencing of reindeer genomes provides clues to their docile ...
Mar 5, 2024 · Surprisingly, the genetic diversity and LD found little difference between wild and domestic reindeer populations (Figure 3A–G). Population ...Introduction · Methods · Results and discussion · Concluding remarks
[13]
Understanding the origin of reindeer riding in Northeast Asia ...
The earliest potential archeological evidence of reindeer domestication comes from Iron Age (260 BCE–140 CE) sites in the Yamal Peninsula of arctic Russia.
[14]
The reindeer in the prehistoric art of Siberia | Antiquity
Jan 2, 2015 · These animals are found in the petroglyphs which date from the Neolithic, but are, perhaps, better known in the bronze items that have been so ...Missing: artifacts | Show results with:artifacts
[15]
Evenki Reindeer Herding: A History - Cultural Survival
Mar 26, 2010 · Evenki herding uses small, tamer herds for transport and milk, with close human-deer relationships, and is related to the oldest form of ...Missing: Scandinavia Sámi 800-1000
[16]
The Archaeology of Reindeer Domestication and Herding Practices ...
Dec 9, 2022 · This review summarizes recent research on the archaeology of reindeer domestication among the Indigenous Sámi of northern Fennoscandia.Missing: Bronze | Show results with:Bronze
[17]
THE INTRODUCTION OF DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA
Jan 1, 2022 · This request was ultimately met, and " in 1892 a herd of 170 reindeer was brought over from Siberia to Port Clarence." Following this delivery, ...Missing: Chukchi Inuit famine
[18]
The U.S. Bureau of Education's Reindeer Importation Program in ...
Aug 15, 2018 · In 1890, Doctor Sheldon Jackson, General Agent of Education in Alaska, reported to me that owing to the rapid killing off of the whale and ...Missing: Chukchi Inuit famine<|separator|>
[19]
Analysing Visual Materials in Sheldon Jackson's “Reindeer ... - NiCHE
Oct 31, 2024 · The photos show Chukchi herders being shipped over to Alaska (Figure 2) and establishing the reindeer herding station at Teller (Figure 3). By ...Missing: 1892 | Show results with:1892
[20]
[PDF] Reindeer pastoralism in modern Siberia: research and survival ...
Among the reindeer herders of northern Siberia, the estimated loss of stock by 1935 was between 30 and 50%, or from 2 200 000 to less than 1 500 000 reindeer ( ...
[21]
Cultured reindeer, domesticated land, and (self)-cultivated herders ...
Apr 28, 2023 · The Soviet Collectivization significantly altered social relations among reindeer herders (including those in regard to reindeer and land) ...
[22]
Adaptation to Change in Reindeer Husbandry in the Republic of ...
Oct 28, 2023 · Collectivization in the northern territories began in 1927. It aimed at organizing supply, marketing, credit, and state financial assistance.Missing: inefficiencies | Show results with:inefficiencies
[23]
[PDF] IS SIBERIAN REINDEER HERDING IN CRISIS? LIVING WITH ...
Most commentators on Siberian reindeer herding conclude that the dramatic drop in the numbers of domestic reindeer after the collapse of state socialism ...Missing: collectivization 1920s- 1950s
[24]
Chukotkan reindeer husbandry in the post-socialist transition
The collapse is typically blamed on Russia's privatization programme, which broke up collectivized reindeer farms into supposedly privatized enterprises.Missing: poaching | Show results with:poaching
[25]
Russia's reindeer herders go global - Arctic in Context
Mar 7, 2018 · The community has endured much hardship since the fall of the Soviet Union. In 1991, state support dried out and reindeer herding fell prey to ...<|separator|>
[26]
Conflicts between reindeer herding and an expanding caribou herd ...
Apr 1, 2002 · Reindeer herders lost 75-100% of their herds through commingling and out¬migration with wild caribou. This loss of over 12 000 reindeer ...Missing: 1920s- | Show results with:1920s-
[27]
Historical and Modern Day Challenges for Alaskan Reindeer Herders
Aug 10, 2025 · However, from 1976 to 1996 the Western Arctic Caribou Herd (WACH) increased from about 75,000 to 463,000 animals. Concurrently, winter range use ...Missing: 1920s- | Show results with:1920s-
[28]
A reindeer herder's perspective on caribou, weather and socio ...
The reindeer industry has shrunk considerably since the early 1990s, when the winter range of the Western Arctic Caribou Herd expanded, and over 17,000 reindeer ...
[29]
Dukha - Livelihood strategies of reindeer herders and hunters in the ...
Having gone through a phase of major transition since their collectivisation and attempted sedentari-sation in the late 1950s, many of the Dukha have returned ...
[30]
Following the White Stag:The Dukha and Their Struggle for Survival
Mar 26, 2010 · Between the 1950s and 1980s, reindeer breeding became an occupation of older herders and pensioners, as young and working-age adults were forced ...Missing: sedentarization | Show results with:sedentarization
[31]
An Ethnohistory of the Dukha Reindeer Herders
Aug 27, 2014 · Tucked away in the northernmost district of Mongolia is a small group of approximately thirty reindeer-herding families who call themselves ...
[32]
Reindeer herding dogs - Reindeer Herders' Association
The change that happened in the dog was due to Sámi people. The worst biters and harassers of the reindeer were killed. The same faith was with the dogs that ...
[33]
[PDF] reindeer herding, traditional knowledge and adaptation to climate ...
A future of a self-sustained and adaptive reindeer community in the circumpolar north is increasingly faced with rapid climate change, regulatory challenges, ...
[34]
Critical seasonal conditions in the reindeer-herding year: A synopsis ...
Each herding community is assigned a maximum number of reindeer, determining the size of each herd after the autumn-winter slaughters and before calving in ...
[35]
They Migrate 800 Miles a Year. Now It's Getting Tougher.
They Migrate 800 Miles a Year. Now It's Getting Tougher. The Nenets, reindeer herders in Russia's Arctic, face modern obstacles in their long journey: climate ...
[36]
[PDF] Reindeer Husbandry in Russia
Russia has about two thirds of the world's population of domesticated reindeer. They are herded on a terri- tory of more than three millions of square ...
[37]
[PDF] Nenets reindeer herders on the lower Yenisei River - Polar Research
Survey results put the largest herd at over 1000 head, with five or six of the other wealthy herders owning between 300 and 500 reindeer each.
[38]
Reindeer Herding in Sweden - LAITS
The first reindeer herding law in Sweden, passed in 1886, is aptly known as the Reindeer Herding Act. It was designed to regulate conflicts between the herders ...
[39]
Reindeer Herding in Norway - LAITS
Reindeer are branded by making small cuts into the ears of calves. Each family member will have their own earmark and part of the skill of a herder is knowing ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[40]
Earmarks, Furmarks and the Community: Multiple Reindeer Property ...
The distinct earmark and furmark systems convey unique entitlements, thereby reinforcing kinship and community bonds in herd management. What role do earmarks ...
[41]
Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) castration in Fennoscandia
The strength of castration is a feature that seems unique to reindeer herding and is determined by how much of the testicular gland or spermatic cord is left ...
[42]
Castration as Part of Reindeer Herd Management - ResearchGate
Castration makes reindeer easier to handle and may have played a key role in associating humans with wild reindeer in the past. Although the importance of ...
[43]
Castration as a means for reindeer to adapt to climate change?
The new research shows that castration of males leads to stronger and bigger individuals, The castrated males are better able to dig through thicker layers of ...
[44]
Reproductive success in reindeer males in a herd with varying sex ...
Reproductive success in reindeer males in a herd with varying sex ratio ... male:female sex ratio of 1:7 and 1:3. Copulations were recorded, together ...Missing: breeding 1:20
[45]
[PDF] The productive herd : Past, present and perspectives Holand, Øystein
Apr 21, 2022 · To achieve and maintain an optimal herd composition requires systematic slaughter, which automatically leads to changes in the herds' genetic ...
[46]
[PDF] Improvement of meat production capacity in reindeer farming
Important information for selection and management decisions are calving rates, weight gains of calves, weights of adult females and survival. Data are ...<|separator|>
[47]
Calf mortality in semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in a ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Mortality rates, commonly due to predation, can range from 5 to 70%, which constitutes a great welfare concern. This study examined the ...
[48]
Large carnivore conservation and traditional pastoralism: A case ...
Jun 25, 2023 · Our results suggest that the economic impact of bear predation on reindeer herding communities can generally not be mitigated via calving ...Missing: rifles | Show results with:rifles
[49]
Mission impossible? Pursuing the co-existence of viable predator ...
Mostly free-ranging reindeer herds have been exposed to increased predation. We studied connections between the contemporary predator management approach and ...Missing: rifles | Show results with:rifles
[50]
Necropsy findings, meat control pathology and causes of loss in ...
Jan 4, 2024 · This study highlights the importance of examining dead reindeer to gain knowledge about why they die on winter pasture.Missing: vaccination Scandinavia
[51]
Meat, hides and antlers: the Russian reindeer economy - Arctic Russia
Feb 25, 2023 · In YNAA, reindeer herders are paid at least RUB 450 per kilogram of meat in the 'free sale' category and RUB 150 per kilogram of meat in the ' ...Missing: value | Show results with:value
[52]
Composition and some quality characteristics of the longissimus ...
Wiklund et al. (2001) reported an average carcass weight of 44.2 kg for Swedish reindeer males (6–24 months) fed with commercial reindeer pellets based on oat, ...
[53]
Animals that Produce Dairy Foods: Reindeer | Request PDF
The maximum production output is 1-1.5l day⁻¹, suggesting a potential milk production in reindeer of about 100kg per lactation cycle. However, the dry matter ...Missing: sled speed km/
[54]
How Fast Can a Reindeer Run in the Snow? - Wildmaker Lapland
Aug 20, 2024 · On average, a reindeer can run at speeds of up to 50 to 60 kilometers per hour (31 to 37 miles per hour) on snowy terrains.Missing: milk yield transport
[55]
[PDF] Economic efficiency and development of the third domain of ...
Our research confirms that a significant increase in the profitability of reindeer husbandry comes from the processing of products, production of high-quality ...
[56]
Reindeer herding in the Russian Arctic: Making tradition profitable
Oct 16, 2023 · In 2023, the plan is to produce around 400 tons, primarily destined for socially significant institutions such as kindergartens and schools.Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics<|separator|>
[57]
The Rise and Fall of Alaska's 'Reindeer King' - Atlas Obscura
Dec 23, 2022 · Lomen was seemingly unstoppable. By 1929, Americans had purchased nearly 6.5 million pounds of reindeer products, mostly as meat from the Lomens ...Missing: decline | Show results with:decline
[58]
The Sami cooperative herding group: the siida system from past to ...
Sep 1, 2021 · The Sami siida has been described as an organizational institution tailored to meet the dynamic demands of reindeer herding.
[59]
Sami in Sweden
Facts about reindeer · There are some 260,000 reindeer in Sweden. · Reindeer in Sweden are semi-domesticated and live in the northern forests and mountains.
[60]
Sámi & Finns – Finland - International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry
Short-term fluctuations in the size of the reindeer herd have occurred over the past century. During the 1970's and 1980's the number increased rapidly and ...
[61]
Sámi Traditional Reindeer Herding Knowledge Throughout a Year
Dec 10, 2022 · Reindeer husbandry is based on an annual cycle that includes migrations between seasonal pastures where moving and migration are part of a ...
[62]
In the Arctic, Indigenous Sámi keep life centered on reindeer herding
Dec 20, 2021 · The Inari Sámi practice a unique form of reindeer herding along with fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants, berries and mushrooms.
[63]
Sámi - Norway - International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry - ICR
... herd and before the calving starts in may, fluctuates but is normally around 200 000. In Norway the reindeer numbers where 242 000 year 1990, 172 000 year ...
[64]
[PDF] reindeer husbandry in norway
Jul 26, 2024 · The increase in meat exports is, according to experts, one of the significant ways to increase the profitability of Norwegian reindeer husbandry ...
[65]
(PDF) The market of reindeer meat in Finland, Scarce resource
Aug 6, 2025 · In Sweden, 38% of the reindeer meat produced in 2005 was consumed by Sami communities, 38% in the rest of the country and 24% exported. ...
[66]
Insight into the Current Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of ...
It is generally admitted that reindeer husbandry entered Chukotka only a few centuries ago and spread in the local tundra during the 17th–18th centuries [64].
[67]
A microregional reindeer herding landscape in Yamal - Pastoralism
Nov 13, 2023 · The highest concentration of reindeer herds in the vast territory of the YNAO (770,000 km2) is associated with tundra (including mountain tundra) ...
[68]
Top‐Down Regulation by a Reindeer Herding System Limits ...
Jul 5, 2023 · The domesticated reindeer herds of the Nenets are the largest in the world today, whereas estimates of past megafauna population sizes are ...
[69]
Chukchi - International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry - ICR
The Chukchi based their economy on reindeer husbandry, using reindeer for food, clothing, and tents. They practice both taiga and tundra methods, with large ...Missing: dogs | Show results with:dogs
[70]
[PDF] The Shift from Herding to Hunting among the Siberian Evenki
Under the Soviet regime, they had been forced to participate in reindeer herding; it was their only option. In the post-Socialist period—throughout the 1990s ...Missing: Evenkia | Show results with:Evenkia
[71]
The Loss of Reindeer Herding in the Evenki Community of Western ...
Dec 19, 2024 · This article examines the transformation of reindeer herding during the Soviet period and how Soviet policies and large-scale industrial ...
[72]
Tundra Nenets - ArcticPhoto
The Nenets use mainly reindeer sleds as transport. They have a variety of types of sled for different uses and a special sled for women. In forested areas they ...
[73]
The Other 364 Days of the Year: The Real Lives of Wild Reindeer
In Alaska, herding of reindeer started a little more than a century ago when 1300 reindeer were imported from Siberia. At the time, caribou were scarce along ...
[74]
RRP Reindeer History in Alaska
Jun 3, 2021 · Reindeer herding in Alaska has been a cultural and traditional mainstay in many western villages. The traditions surrounding reindeer herding ...<|separator|>
[75]
History of Reindeer in Alaska | UAF news and information
The reindeer industry grew until there were over 600,000 animals present in the 1930s. Mismanagement and losses to wolves and caribou sparked a dramatic decline ...
[76]
Reindeer and Caribou Populations - Geophysical Institute
Sep 15, 1980 · Today there are perhaps 270,000 caribou and about 24,000 reindeer in Alaska. In 1935, biologist Olaus Murie estimated the caribou population ...
[77]
CHANGING TAIGA - The Reindeer Herding and Resilience Project
out the challenges and opportunities for Dukha reindeer husbandry. ... “Genetic distinctiveness of isolated and threatened Tsaatan reindeer herds in. Mongolia.” ...
[78]
Vanishing ice puts reindeer herders at risk | CU Boulder Today
Nov 15, 2019 · Veterinarians on the research team reported that this melt could soon pose serious health risks to the herds of reindeer. “The Tsaatan are ...
[79]
Evenki (China) - International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry - ICR
There are currently 234 Evenki engaged in reindeer husbandry across 20 families herding approximately 1000 reindeer.
[80]
[PDF] Are the Evenki reindeer herders still nomads? The alternate ... - HAL
Nov 30, 2023 · The Evenki reindeer herders today form a small community of approximately 300 people4 living with around 1,000 reindeer in the northeastern ...
[81]
[PDF] the history of reindeer herding on the alaska peninsula, 1905–1950 ...
In the early 1930s, based on archival sources, reindeer numbers reached their peak for the study area with approximately 10,000 reindeer. Within two decades, ...
[82]
Climate change puts pressure on reindeer populations, both wild ...
Oct 1, 2025 · In Finland's Arctic, unpredictable weather events pose a threat to reindeer herding, a traditional livelihood for the Indigenous Sámi people ...
[83]
Reindeer grazing increases summer albedo by reducing shrub ...
Dec 1, 2016 · We show that reindeer grazing has a potential cooling effect on climate by increasing summer albedo and decreasing net radiation. This ...
[84]
Rapid recovery of recently overexploited winter grazing pastures for ...
The lichen heath recovery was reciprocally correlated with reindeer density. ... ▻ The lichen dominated tundra in North Norway has been overexploited by reindeer.Missing: regeneration | Show results with:regeneration
[85]
Reindeer influence on ecosystem processes in the tundra
Aug 7, 2025 · Reindeer have been recorded to increase nutrient cycling rate and primary production in studies from fences almost 40 years old that ...
[86]
Pulse grazing by reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) can increase the ...
Oct 7, 2021 · Pulse grazing by reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) can increase the phylogenetic diversity of vascular plant communities in the Fennoscandian tundra.
[87]
Reindeer Winter Grazing in Alpine Tundra: Impacts on Ridge ...
Jan 23, 2018 · Reindeer density (1974–2000) and lichen biomass were well correlated for sites with comparable snow cover, altitude and terrain (R 2 = 0.81, P = ...Missing: regeneration | Show results with:regeneration
[88]
Can management buffer pasture loss and fragmentation for Sami ...
Oct 30, 2020 · However, in spite of the documented loss of productive winter pastures, the total reindeer population size in Sweden has not shown any long-term ...<|separator|>
[89]
Reindeer grazing reduces climate‐driven vegetation changes and ...
Jun 28, 2024 · Herbivory by reindeer reduces lichen abundance, particularly during summer when lichens are dry (Forbes and Kumpula 2009), while enhancing soil ...
[90]
Reindeer grazing increases summer albedo by reducing shrub ...
Dec 22, 2016 · We find that when reindeer reduces shrub height and abundance, summer albedo increases in both Betula nana-dominated heath vegetation and Salix ...
[91]
The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since ...
Aug 11, 2022 · During 1979–2021, major portions of the Arctic Ocean were warming at least four times as fast as the global average (Fig. 1c). The most extreme ...
[92]
Full article: Can animal grazing help to reduce permafrost thaw?
Aug 21, 2024 · Grazing enhances carbon cycling but reduces methane emission during peak growing season in the Siberian Pleistocene Park tundra site. Source ...
[93]
Small step for reindeer – large leap for humankind? - EGU Blogs
Sep 22, 2023 · Reindeer and other herbivores influence the insulation regime of the ground and could thereby preserve the frozen state of permafrost ground.
[94]
Reindeer control over shrubification in subarctic wetlands: spatial ...
May 9, 2023 · (2016) Reindeer grazing increases summer albedo by reducing shrub abundance in Arctic tundra. Environmental Research Letters, 11(12), 125013.
[95]
How reindeer help fight climate change - BBC
Dec 19, 2023 · Climate change has created serious challenges for reindeer herding in recent years, leading to more rain-on-snow events, followed by sudden ...
[96]
Uncommon GroUnd - Berghahn Journals
Feb 20, 2025 · For much of the twentieth century, reindeer herding was an inconvenient interference with Norwegian state agricultural ambitions. Since the ...
[97]
Impacts of climate warming on reindeer herding require new land ...
Dec 17, 2021 · Reindeer herding in Sweden is practiced by 51 Sámi Reindeer Herding Communities (RHCs) over c. 160 000 km2 (Fig. 1). The current division of the ...
[98]
Cumulative worries in Sápmi—the interplay between climate change ...
Apr 4, 2025 · Competing land uses, climate change, and state regulations pose stress to Saami reindeer herders in Norway and Sweden.
[99]
Reindeer as Ecosystem Engineers? - NASA Earth Observatory
Dec 22, 2021 · On the Yamal Peninsula in West Siberia, the nomadic Nenets people have a long tradition of herding reindeer on the Arctic tundra.Missing: primary production
[100]
The increase of an allelopathic and unpalatable plant undermines ...
Aug 3, 2024 · For instance, reindeer can counteract shrubification, e.g., keeping nutritious willows in a “browse-trap”, and thereby prevent the even more ...
[101]
Reindeer grazing controls willows but has only minor effects on ...
Shrub expansion can result in several positive feedbacks to climate change, such as decreases in surface reflectance (albedo; Blok et al. ... Grazing in Arctic ...
[102]
EALÁT Information - International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry
EALÁT Information – Reindeer Herding, Traditional Knowledge and Adaptation to Climate Change and Loss of Grazing Land. EALÁT Information is Norwegian Arctic ...
[103]
[PDF] Climate change and reindeer herding - DiVA portal
May 18, 2024 · Saami reindeer herding communities in Norway and Sweden rely on natural pastures throughout the year and are directly exposed to the effects of ...
[104]
Mismatch in reindeer resilience to past and future warming signals ...
Aug 13, 2025 · Rangifer tarandus (caribou or reindeer) survived periods of abrupt climatic warming during the last deglaciation but are currently in global ...
[105]
Reindeer and Resilience | AMNH
As a nomadic way of life based on Indigenous knowledge, reindeer husbandry in the Arctic has a historically high resilience to environmental variability and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[106]
Climate change and reindeer herding – A bioeconomic model on ...
Sep 10, 2024 · Climate change and reindeer herding – A bioeconomic model on the impact of climate change on harvesting profits for Saami reindeer herders ...
[107]
Mapping cumulative pressures on the grazing lands of northern ...
Sep 30, 2022 · Our results show that 85% of the region is affected by at least one land-use pressure and 60% is affected by multiple land-use pressures.
[108]
Double Burden for Indigenous Sámi Reindeer Herding Communities
Only about four percent of reindeer grazing land across Sweden, Norway, and Finland remains undisturbed by various land encroachments, including wind power ...
[109]
Sami Land Rights: Recent Developments in Swedish Case Law
Aug 7, 2025 · This article's aim is to present and analyse recent case law developments in Sweden that relate to the recognition and protection of Sami land ...
[110]
Yamal reindeer herders hemmed in by gas fields and pipelines - BBC
May 10, 2012 · The Nenets people have herded reindeer in Siberia for 1000 years, but the gas wealth of the Yamal peninsula may threaten their lifestyle.Missing: displacement | Show results with:displacement
[111]
Ceremony of first tanker loading under the Yamal LNG project
Dec 8, 2017 · Someone has already mentioned the number of jobs created across the country – more than 100,000. Over 30,000 people worked here alone during ...
[112]
Negotiated Agreements and Sámi Reindeer Herding in Sweden
Mar 6, 2024 · In the European north, there is a growing trend for Sámi reindeer herding communities to enter negotiated agreements with developers of projects ...Missing: subsidies | Show results with:subsidies
[113]
Adaptive Strategies of Indigenous Nenets Reindeer Herders for ...
Yamal is the world's largest region of nomadic reindeer herding, where Nenets families live alongside their domestic reindeer on annual migration routes of up ...Missing: origins Bronze Age
[114]
(PDF) The economics of reindeer herding : Saami entrepreneurship ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Purpose – This paper attempts to explain the drastic fall in income experienced by Saami reindeer herders in Northern Norway between 1976 and ...Missing: distorting | Show results with:distorting
[115]
Winter condition variability decreases the economic sustainability of ...
Aug 6, 2022 · Our analysis suggests that the increasing variability of winter conditions due to climate change will decrease net revenues in reindeer husbandry.Missing: viability | Show results with:viability
[116]
[PDF] Confused Ownership of Reindeer in Chukotka, Russia Patty A. Gray
In this chapter I demonstrate that post-Soviet privatization of reindeer herding in Chukotka, rather than securing the herders' rights to ownership of the deer ...Missing: fragmentation | Show results with:fragmentation<|separator|>
[117]
[PDF] Chukotkan reindeer husbandry in the post-socialist transition
Reindeer herding in Chukotka has collapsed since 1991 due to privatization, political changes, and internal colonialism, with a core-periphery relationship ...Missing: fragmentation | Show results with:fragmentation
[118]
The relationship between quotas and harvest in the alpine reindeer ...
Oct 28, 2021 · In Scandinavia, the entire quotas are often not shot making deer management potentially less predictable. However, the effect of quota size and ...Missing: overpopulation | Show results with:overpopulation
[119]
A tragedy of errors? Institutional dynamics and land tenure in ...
Mar 16, 2015 · Reindeer herding in Finnmark has been widely perceived during the last few decades as a perfect example of the tragedy of the commons.
[120]
[PDF] ALASKA REINDEER HERDSMEN
The urge felt by reindeer to return to familiar range and, at fawning season, to return to the range of their birth causes unusually high herding expenses for ...
[121]
[PDF] SUSTAINABLE REINDEER HUSBANDRY - Arctic Council Archive
Reindeer herding is used to emphasize the con- crete action with a herd, or as a description of persons working with the herd, without any ownership to the.<|control11|><|separator|>
[122]
[PDF] Indigenous Gender Justice with a Focus on Sámi Reindeer Herding ...
Apr 13, 2021 · In Norway, the ongoing masculinisation of reindeer herding has been accompanied by the ongoing exodus of young women from reindeer herding, ...
[123]
[PDF] ARCTIC CONNECTIONS Addressing the out-migration of young ...
Apr 28, 2022 · Reasons for out-migration include lack of employment, poor infrastructure, limited lifestyle opportunities, and the lure of regional centers.
[124]
Radio & Satellite Telemetry - Reindeer Research Program
Sep 20, 2019 · The RRP developed its own automated satellite collar location mapping system which provided timely accurate location maps to the RRP, government ...Missing: innovations | Show results with:innovations
[125]
Wireless collars now point way to reindeer - The Detroit News
Dec 21, 2018 · The collars, which use GPS satellite positioning and special long-distance wireless networks, help herders find reindeer corpses so they can ...Missing: innovations | Show results with:innovations
[126]
New Globalstar Satellite IoT Solution Safeguarding Reindeer in ...
May 30, 2019 · We designed the collar around SmartOne C due to its satellite coverage, superior battery life, small size and low cost.” The SmartOne C's long ...
[127]
[PDF] The Implementation of GPS collars as a Tool in Reindeer Husbandry
Sep 24, 2020 · This dissertation presents the use of global positioning systems (GPS) navigation devices to monitor the reindeer within husbandry. The use of ...
[128]
Exchanging knowledge of drone use in traditional reindeer herding
Areas of hard-to-reach reindeer rangelands can now be accessed through drone cameras, and drones can make finding, collecting and driving reindeer easier.Missing: surveillance | Show results with:surveillance
[129]
AirHerd: drones transform Sámi reindeer herding - YouTube
Sep 24, 2024 · The introduction of drones to traditional reindeer herding has - literally - given indigenous Sámi herders a new perspective: the aerial one ...Missing: predator | Show results with:predator
[130]
To Protect Livestock From Predators, Some Look to the Skies
Apr 30, 2024 · Drones could also monitor areas where wolves or bears have been sighted, guiding range riders in their livestock-monitoring efforts.
[131]
Conducting reindeer research in Kutuharju - Luonnonvarakeskus
It provides extensive research opportunities on reindeer, their behaviour, physiology, genetics, reproduction and food choice.
[132]
[PDF] Selection decisions among reindeer herders in Finland
General animal breeding scheme requires: i) individual marking of animals, ii) production records, iii) pedigree information, and iv) con- trolled mating. ...Missing: programs | Show results with:programs
[133]
[PDF] Current state of and prospects for selection in reindeer husbandry
To investigate the demand for and practices of selective breeding and their regional differences in the reindeer-herding area in Finland, the managers of the ...Missing: programs | Show results with:programs
[134]
[PDF] Reindeer herding in Finland | Snowchange Cooperative
Jun 17, 2015 · ... motorised herding ... State headage aids for reindeer. There is a headage-based State Aid for all herds with at least 80 animals per 'household'.Missing: motorized | Show results with:motorized
[135]
[PDF] Reindeer Husbandry in Norway
Later came other mechanical aids and today such tools are major feature of modern reindeer herding. This has had a variety of impacts on reindeer husbandry ...
[136]
"Episode 3: The Technology of Reindeer Herding" Transcript
The most recent break-through has been the use of radio and satellite collars to track herd movements over large ranges, but it has not been without problems.Missing: innovations | Show results with:innovations
[137]
Reindeer cooperative on Kola starts meat export to Finland
Apr 22, 2021 · Lovozero-based reindeer-breeding cooperative “Tundra” has just sent a test batch of 8,5 tons of meat after being certified for the European ...Missing: branding | Show results with:branding
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[PDF] COMMISSION - EUR-Lex - European Union
Jan 25, 2008 · Description: The name Lapin Poron liha is used to designate Lapland reindeer meat products in the food trade and in food marketing.Missing: exports branding
[139]
Another Sámi Product Becomes a Slow Food Presidium
Feb 15, 2018 · Today Slow Food officially launched a Presidium* for Sámi Cured Reindeer Meat, or gurpi. Sámi are indigenous nomadic reindeer herders.Missing: exports branding<|control11|><|separator|>
[140]
25 Years since Establishment of Association of World Reindeer ...
Jan 24, 2022 · March 2nd 1997 in Nadym Yamal Nenets AO in Russia - 25 years ago - the first Congress of Association of World Reindeer Herders (WRH) was ...
[141]
[PDF] Arctic indigenous reindeer herders face the challenges of climate ...
The. Association of World Reindeer Herders, established in 1997, created a unique circumpolar international cooperation that represents 97 percent of the ...
[142]
[PDF] RHR PUBLIC REPORT 2023
The Reindeer Herding and Resilience project aims to create a sustainable future for reindeer herding communities, ensuring their traditional Indigenous ...
[143]
(PDF) Ch.1.3 Sustainable and resilient reindeer herding
Oct 21, 2020 · be protected from grazing and trampling by reindeer during the entire snow-free season….. However, most of the reindeer herding districts in ...
[144]
the role of tourism among reindeer herders in northern Sweden
The findings suggest that involvement in tourism is more common among reindeer herders than farmers. Moreover, involvement in tourism is highly gendered with ...
[145]
Reindeer husbandry as a basic sector of the traditional economy of ...
The share of reindeer pastures in the main area of reindeer husbandry is 53% of their area in Yamalo‐Nenets Autonomous Okrug, and the share of reindeer is 90%, ...
[146]
[PDF] The Dimensions of Sustainability and the Neo-entrepreneurial ...
Introduction. The purpose of this article is to analyze the sustainability of neo-entrepreneurial adaptation strategies of reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus) ...Missing: oriented | Show results with:oriented