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Nothofagus

Nothofagus, commonly known as the southern beeches, is a genus of approximately 35–43 species of evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs belonging to the family Nothofagaceae in the order Fagales.^[1]^[2]^[3] Native exclusively to the Southern Hemisphere, the genus is distributed across temperate and montane regions of southern South America (including Chile and Argentina), southeastern Australia and Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Guinea, and parts of Indonesia.^[1]^[2]^[3] These plants typically feature smooth, thin bark that is often grayish or brownish and marked by prominent lenticels, simple alternate leaves that are distichous (arranged in two vertical rows) with entire, wavy, or toothed margins, and minute, unisexual flowers that are wind-pollinated, producing small nuts enclosed in a woody cupule.^[1]^[2] The genus exhibits a classic disjunct distribution pattern, with no native presence in the Northern Hemisphere, making Nothofagus a key example in biogeographical studies of Gondwanan flora.^[4] Fossil evidence traces its origins to the late Cretaceous period, around 80 million years ago, supporting the hypothesis that its current range resulted from the vicariance (fragmentation) of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana rather than long-distance dispersal, as the seeds lack adaptations for ocean travel.^[4]^[3] Ecologically, Nothofagus species often dominate cool temperate rainforests, forming extensive monodominant stands on acidic, well-drained soils, and play crucial roles in nutrient cycling through periodic mast seeding events that influence wildlife populations.^[2]^[1] Taxonomically, Nothofagus is divided into several subgenera—such as Brassospora, Fuscospora, Lophozonia, and Nothofagus—based on morphological and molecular characteristics, though proposals to split it into four separate genera remain controversial and not universally accepted.^[2]^[3] Many species are of conservation concern due to habitat loss from logging, invasive species, and climate change, with at least 11 species listed as threatened; efforts focus on ex situ preservation and protected areas.^[2] In horticulture, select species are valued for their ornamental qualities in temperate gardens, providing shade and ecological mimicry of native woodlands.^[1]^[2]

Description and Morphology

Physical Characteristics

Nothofagus is a genus of approximately 35–43 species of evergreen or deciduous trees and shrubs, typically reaching heights of 10 to 40 meters, though some can attain up to 50 meters in favorable conditions.^[3] The bark is generally smooth to fissured and peels in patches or flakes, varying from papery and rufous in some species to hard and scaly in others.^[2] The leaves are simple and alternate, measuring 1 to 10 cm in length, with margins that are entire or toothed.^[2] Venation is pinnate, and secondary veins often end at the teeth, a characteristic feature used in species identification.^[5] Nothofagus species are monoecious, with male and female flowers borne on the same tree in small inflorescences resembling catkins (dichasia).^[3] The fruit consists of woody cupules enclosing 1 to 7 small, triangular nuts (achenes), with cupule structure varying by subgenus—such as 2-valved in Brassospora and 3- to 4-valved in Fuscospora.^[3] The wood is hard and durable, featuring a fine, uniform texture that aids in taxonomic identification and makes it suitable for timber uses like furniture and flooring.^[6] Morphological variations occur across subgenera; for example, species in the tropical subgenus Brassospora exhibit larger leaves and evergreen habits adapted to montane rainforests, contrasting with the smaller, often deciduous leaves in temperate subgenera like Nothofagus.^[7]

Reproduction

Nothofagus species primarily reproduce sexually through monoecious flowers that are wind-pollinated, with separate staminate and pistillate catkins borne on the same tree.^[2] The small, inconspicuous flowers typically emerge in spring, with staminate catkins producing copious pollen dispersed by wind, while pistillate flowers develop into cupules containing one to several small nuts.^[2] These nuts are primarily dispersed by gravity (barochory) and wind (anemochory), though animal-mediated dispersal (zoochory) occurs in some regions, such as New Zealand where native and introduced birds, including the kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae), consume and cache seeds during mast events.^[8] In addition to sexual reproduction, several Nothofagus species exhibit vegetative propagation, particularly in response to disturbance. Root suckering is common in species like N. antarctica, where new shoots arise from adventitious roots, allowing clonal spread in fragmented or fire-affected habitats.^[9] Coppicing, the regrowth of shoots from basal stumps or roots after cutting or damage, is also observed in species such as N. obliqua and N. alpina, facilitating recovery in managed or disturbed forests.^[9] These asexual mechanisms contribute to population persistence in environments where seedling establishment is challenging. Nothofagus trees are long-lived, with lifespans exceeding 500 years in many species; for example, N. dombeyi individuals can reach up to 600 years in optimal conditions.^[10] Reproduction is episodic, characterized by mast seeding in regions like New Zealand, where heavy seed crops occur synchronously across populations every 2–6 years, driven by resource accumulation and environmental cues such as temperature.^[11]^[12] Germination of Nothofagus nuts requires specific conditions, including moist, well-drained soils and cool temperatures, typically occurring in spring following dispersal.^[13] Seedlings heavily depend on ectomycorrhizal associations with fungi such as those in the genera Cenococcum and Rhizopogon, which facilitate nutrient uptake; without these symbionts, seedling survival rates are low, often below 10% in natural settings due to poor establishment.^[14]^[15] Hybridization between Nothofagus species is documented, particularly among Chilean taxa like N. obliqua, N. alpina, and N. nervosa, where overlapping ranges and similar flowering times promote gene flow.^[16] These interspecific crosses enhance genetic diversity within populations, potentially aiding adaptation to environmental variability, though hybrids may exhibit reduced fitness in some cases.^[17]

Taxonomy

Classification History

The genus Nothofagus was first formally described in 1851 by Carl Ludwig Blume in his work Museum Botanicum Lugduno-Batavum, establishing it as a distinct genus from the northern hemisphere beeches of Fagus based on differences in leaf venation, cupule structure, and overall morphology. Blume's description highlighted the southern hemisphere distribution and unique traits of these trees, naming the genus from Greek roots meaning "southern beech" to reflect its ecological analogy to Fagus.^[2] Initially, Nothofagus was classified within the family Fagaceae due to superficial similarities in nut-bearing inflorescences and tricolpate pollen, placing it alongside Fagus in the subfamily Fagoideae.^[2] However, accumulating evidence from pollen ultrastructure, floral anatomy, and wood anatomy in the mid- to late 20th century led to its separation into the distinct family Nothofagaceae, with key support from studies emphasizing triporate pollen types and valvular cupules absent in other Fagaceae.^[18] This reclassification underscored the family's monotypic nature, confined to Nothofagus, and its basal position within the order Fagales.^[19] Infrageneric classifications evolved through morphological analyses, with early subdivisions based on leaf vernation, cupule morphology, and pollen types into subgenera such as Lophozonia and Fuscospora.^[20] A significant revision came in 2013 when Heenan and Smissen proposed splitting Nothofagus into four genera—Fuscospora, Lophozonia, Nothofagus s.s., and Trisyngyne—based on phylogenetic evidence from nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences that supported deep divergences among these clades.^[18] This proposal, while influential, remains debated and not universally adopted, as many authorities retain the broad genus due to ongoing hybridization and practical nomenclatural stability; as of 2025, Plants of the World Online recognizes 38 species under a unified Nothofagus.^[21] Molecular phylogenetic studies using chloroplast (rbcL, matK) and nuclear markers have firmly established the monophyly of Nothofagus and its Gondwanan origins, with divergence from other Fagales estimated around 85–90 million years ago, predating the final breakup of Gondwana.^[19] These analyses reveal four major clades corresponding to geographic regions (South America, Australia-New Zealand, New Guinea, New Caledonia), supporting vicariance as a driver of diversification.^[22] Classification challenges persist due to interspecific hybridization, which blurs species boundaries in contact zones, and morphological convergence in traits like leaf shape and stomatal density across distant lineages.^[16]

Subgenera and Species Diversity

The genus Nothofagus is currently divided into four monophyletic subgenera based on phylogenetic analyses of morphological and molecular data: Brassospora, Lophozonia, Fuscospora, and Nothofagus sensu stricto (s.s.).^[18] Subgenus Brassospora comprises approximately 20 species, primarily adapted to tropical montane forests in New Guinea and New Caledonia, where they form a significant component of cloud forest canopies.^[2] Subgenus Lophozonia includes 7 species characterized by broader leaves and occurs in temperate regions of South America and Australia.^[18] Subgenus Fuscospora encompasses 6 species with smaller leaves suited to cool temperate environments, distributed across New Zealand, southern South America, and southeastern Australia.^[18] Finally, subgenus Nothofagus s.s. contains 5 species, exclusively in southern South America, often in subalpine or coastal settings.^[18] In total, there are 38 extant species recognized in Nothofagus according to Plants of the World Online (POWO, 2025), though this number rises to 43 when including debated or provisionally accepted taxa based on recent regional floras and phylogenetic revisions.^[21]^[23] Representative examples include N. menziesii (silver beech) from subgenus Lophozonia, a dominant canopy tree in New Zealand's mixed forests known for its silvery bark, and N. obliqua (rauli) from the same subgenus, a valuable timber species in Chile's Andean foothills.^[21] Species delimitation within Nothofagus relies on a combination of morphological traits and molecular markers. Key diagnostic features include leaf venation patterns, which vary from simple to compound across subgenera, and cupule structure, such as the number of valves (typically 2–7) and spine morphology on the nut-enclosing cupules.^[3] DNA barcoding, particularly using regions like matK, rbcL, and ITS, has become essential for resolving cryptic variation and confirming hybrids, especially in overlapping ranges.^[24] Genetic diversity in Nothofagus is generally low in isolated populations, attributed to Pleistocene glacial bottlenecks that restricted ranges to refugia and reduced effective population sizes.^[25] For instance, species like N. alessandrii in Chile exhibit reduced heterozygosity and structured variation, reflecting historical fragmentation.^[26] Ongoing taxonomic debates center on whether to elevate the subgenera to full genera, as proposed in phylogenetic studies from 2013 onward, which highlight deep divergences in pollen morphology, cupule evolution, and chloroplast genomes.^[18] While some regional treatments, such as in New Zealand, have adopted segregate genera like Lophozonia and Fuscospora, broader consensus maintains the monophyletic genus Nothofagus pending further integrative analyses through 2025.^[27]

Extinct Taxa

The genus Nothofagus possesses a rich fossil record spanning the Late Cretaceous to the Pleistocene, with dozens of extinct species described primarily from leaves, cupules, fruits, and pollen grains preserved in sedimentary deposits across the Southern Hemisphere.^[28] These fossils document a far greater historical diversity than the extant 38 species, highlighting significant extinctions that reduced the genus's range and taxonomic breadth over time.^[19] Notable examples include Nothofagus tasmanica from Eocene sediments in Tasmania, Australia, characterized by lanceolate leaves with serrate margins, and Nothofagus elongata from Miocene deposits in Antarctica, featuring elongate leaves with acute apices and secondary venation patterns akin to modern Lophozonia.^[28] Other described extinct taxa encompass N. microphylla, N. pachyphylla, N. multinervis, and N. beardmorensis, often recovered from cool-temperate paleoenvironments.^[28] Fossil evidence indicates the extinction of entire lineages, including subgenera or basal clades not represented in modern Nothofagus, such as early pollen morphotypes from the Late Cretaceous that diverge from the four extant subgenera (Lophozonia, Fuscospora, Brassospora, and Nothofagus).^[19] No full-genus recent extinctions are confirmed, though local extirpations occurred in South America during Pleistocene glaciations, leading to fragmented distributions and loss of populations in formerly continuous habitats.^[19] Key fossil sites include Late Cretaceous pollen assemblages from the Antarctic Peninsula, such as the Hidden Lake Formation on James Ross Island, where Nothofagidites grains (attributed to Fuscospora and Lophozonia) first appear around 85–71 million years ago, signaling early diversification in a proto-Antarctic setting. Additional significant localities are the Transantarctic Mountains and Tasmanian Tertiary basins, yielding macrofossils from Eocene to Miocene intervals.^[28] Morphological fossils of extinct Nothofagus often exhibit features closely resembling those of living subgenera, including trimerous cupules enclosing nuts, simple to lobed leaves with toothed margins, and triporate pollen with ornate exines, though ancient forms tended to have larger leaves and more pronounced venation.^[28] These similarities facilitate assignment to subgenera, with Antarctic leaves like N. betulifolia aligning with Fuscospora based on stomatal density and leaf architecture. Taxonomically, the incorporation of such fossils into phylogenetic analyses reinforces the monophyly of Nothofagus and its subgenera while underscoring a past peak in diversity during the Paleogene, prior to Miocene cooling and isolation events that drove widespread extinctions.^[28] This paleontological evidence highlights how climatic shifts and continental drift contributed to the pruning of once-vast lineages, leaving a relict southern distribution.^[19]

Distribution and Biogeography

Current Geographic Range

Nothofagus species are native exclusively to the Southern Hemisphere, exhibiting a highly disjunct distribution across southern South America, Australia (including Tasmania), New Zealand, New Guinea (including the Indonesian province of Papua and Papua New Guinea), and New Caledonia. In southern South America, particularly Chile and Argentina, 10 species occur, such as N. obliqua, N. dombeyi, and N. pumilio, primarily in temperate forests along the Andean range and coastal areas. Australia and Tasmania host three species (N. cunninghamii, N. moorei, and N. gunnii), confined to southeastern regions in cool temperate rainforests. New Zealand supports five species (N. menziesii, N. fusca, N. truncata, N. solandri, and N. cliffortioides), dominating vast tracts of montane and lowland forests. The highest diversity is found in New Guinea and New Caledonia, with over 15 species collectively, including N. grandis and N. balansae, thriving in montane cloud forests.^[29] These trees occupy a broad elevational gradient from sea level to 3,500 m, spanning temperate to subtropical montane environments, with distributions shaped by climatic zones from cool rainforests to high-altitude woodlands. In South America, species like N. antarctica extend from lowlands to subalpine zones up to 2,500 m, while in New Guinea, several taxa reach 3,000–3,500 m in upper montane forests. Habitats typically include pure stands on exposed ridges or slopes, as seen with N. pumilio in Patagonia, or mixed forests with conifers such as podocarps (Podocarpus spp.) in New Zealand and laurels (Laurelia and Persea spp.) in Chilean coastal ranges.^[29]^[3]^[30] The genus shows no natural occurrence in Africa or the Northern Hemisphere continents, reflecting its Gondwanan origins, though several species have been introduced outside their native ranges for forestry and ornamental purposes. In Europe, species like N. obliqua and N. alpina are planted in trials across the United Kingdom and continental sites for timber production, while in North America, N. dombeyi and others are grown in arboreta and experimental plantations in the Pacific Northwest. Recent assessments highlight ongoing range contractions; for instance, N. alessandrii in central Chile has experienced over 50% range contraction as of 2022 due to habitat fragmentation, wildfires, and conversion to exotic plantations, severely impacting connectivity among its remnant stands.^[29]^[31]^[32]

Evolutionary Origins and Fossil Record

The genus Nothofagus originated in West Antarctica during the Late Cretaceous, approximately 80–70 million years ago, coinciding with the ongoing breakup of the Gondwanan supercontinent. This timing aligns with the divergence of Nothofagus from other Fagales lineages, estimated at over 84 million years ago based on molecular and fossil-calibrated phylogenies. Fossil pollen records provide the earliest evidence, with Nothofagidites-type grains appearing in Antarctic sediments from the Late Cretaceous (Santonian to early Campanian stage, around 80 million years ago), indicating the initial radiation of the genus in a warm, temperate Gondwanan forest ecosystem.^[33]^[19]^[34] Diversification of Nothofagus accelerated during the Campanian, with pollen and macrofossils spreading across southern Gondwana, including Antarctica, Australia, and South America. Peak diversity occurred in the Eocene, particularly in Australia and Antarctica, where diverse leaf and pollen assemblages reflect adaptive radiations in humid, subtropical to temperate rainforests under a warmer global climate. By the Neogene, cooling climates and Antarctic glaciation led to range contractions, reducing diversity in polar regions while Nothofagus persisted in refugia across southern continents. Leaf macrofossils from Patagonia, dated to around 52 million years ago in the early Eocene Laguna del Hunco locality, exemplify this Eocene expansion, showing morphologies affiliated with subgenera Fuscospora and Lophozonia.^[35]^[36]^[37] Biogeographic patterns of Nothofagus have been explained by both vicariance—driven by Gondwanan fragmentation—and long-distance dispersal, with recent analyses favoring a hybrid model. Vicariance accounts for trans-Antarctic distributions in basal lineages, but molecular clocks indicate post-Gondwanan dispersals, such as to New Caledonia via ocean currents or bird-mediated seed transport, occurred after 40 million years ago. Fossil-calibrated phylogenies support this integration, resolving the genus as monophyletic with Brassospora as the basal subgenus, followed by a clade comprising Lophozonia, Fuscospora, and Nothofagus.^[38]^[34]^[35]

Ecology

Habitat Preferences and Interactions

Nothofagus species predominantly inhabit cool-temperate rainforests, where they form the canopy in environments characterized by mild temperatures and consistently moist conditions. These trees thrive in acidic, well-drained soils derived from glacial or volcanic origins, which support their calcifuge nature and prevent waterlogging despite high moisture levels. Annual rainfall in their preferred habitats typically ranges from 1,000 to 5,000 mm, distributed evenly to maintain humidity without extreme seasonal dry periods, as seen in Andean and Australasian temperate zones.^[2]^[39]^[40] Symbiotic relationships are integral to Nothofagus ecology, particularly ectomycorrhizal associations with fungi such as those in the Russulaceae family, which enhance nutrient uptake—especially phosphorus and nitrogen—from nutrient-poor soils. These mutualisms improve host tree growth and resilience by extending root systems and facilitating resource exchange. Recent 2025 research on Patagonian Nothofagus forests reveals that wildfires reduce ectomycorrhizal fungal richness by approximately 13%, though some taxa like Cortinarius sp. exhibit tolerance, underscoring the symbiosis's role in post-disturbance recovery and nutrient cycling.^[41]^[42]^[43] Biotic interactions shape Nothofagus community dynamics, with foliage heavily browsed by ungulates like deer, which can suppress seedling establishment and alter understory composition in heavily impacted areas. Parasitic mistletoes, such as Misodendrum species, infest branches, drawing water and nutrients from hosts and potentially weakening tree vigor, particularly in denser stands. Reproduction relies on wind pollination, with anemophilous flowers ensuring cross-pollination across landscapes, while seeds serve as a key food source for rodents and birds, leading to high predation rates but occasional dispersal via caching behaviors.^[44]^[45]^[2] Nothofagus demonstrates vulnerability to climatic extremes, particularly drought, which triggers hydraulic failure through xylem cavitation and embolism, limiting water transport and causing widespread die-offs. In South America during the 2020s, intensified droughts—exacerbated by the 2010–2020 megadrought—have led to significant mortality in species like Nothofagus dombeyi and N. obliqua, with slower-growing individuals most susceptible due to reduced hydraulic efficiency. In forest succession, Nothofagus often pioneers recovery in disturbed sites such as post-fire or landslide areas, rapidly colonizing to form monodominant stands that stabilize soils and create microhabitats for later-successional species. These adaptations, including drought-avoidant stomatal regulation, align with morphological traits like thick bark for insulation, though prolonged water deficits overwhelm such mechanisms.^[46]^[47]^[48]^[49]

Beech Mast and Population Dynamics

Beech mast refers to the synchronous production of heavy seed crops by Nothofagus species, occurring periodically and leading to massive seed falls that synchronize across large forest areas. In New Zealand, where species of the subgenus Fuscospora dominate, these events typically happen every 3–5 years, driven by weather cues such as warm late summer and early autumn temperatures (January–April) that enhance flowering and resource accumulation in trees. This masting strategy satiates seed predators, increasing the proportion of seeds that escape consumption and contribute to reproduction.^[50]^[50] These mast events trigger boom-bust cycles in associated wildlife, particularly seed predators. In New Zealand forests, the influx of seeds fuels rapid population irruptions in rodents like ship rats (Rattus rattus) and mice (Mus musculus), which can increase dramatically within months, followed by surges in stoats (Mustela erminea) preying on the rodents. This cascade often devastates native bird populations, such as mohua (Mohoua ochrocephalus), through heightened predation during breeding seasons, with historical events like the 1999 mast leading to local extinctions. Bird predators, however, may not benefit equally from masting, as their predation rates can peak independently of seed abundance.^[51]^[50]^[51] Post-mast regeneration in Nothofagus forests features high initial seedling establishment, but survival is limited by high mortality in early years. In South American species like Nothofagus pumilio, episodic masting every 7–8 years results in dense seedling cohorts at lower altitudes following seed falls, yet up to 95% of first-year seedlings succumb to factors like shading and herbivory, maintaining stable forest composition over decades. These dynamics influence overall forest structure, with successful recruitment pulses preventing timberline advancement and sustaining long-lived adult trees. Regional variations are notable: masting is highly synchronized and frequent in New Zealand's Fuscospora species due to simpler food webs and small seed sizes, whereas South American Nothofagus like N. antarctica show similar synchrony but with variable predator responses, including reduced insect predation during masts but increased bird predation.^[52]^[53]^[52]^[54] Recent demographic studies indicate that climate change is altering mast frequency in Nothofagus populations. In New Zealand species like N. solandri, warming trends may reduce interannual variability in seeding, potentially leading to less synchronized masts and lower reproductive efficiency at climatic margins, as hypersensitive flowering responses to temperature fluctuations become disrupted. Broader analyses predict shifts in cue reliability, with temperate Nothofagus facing more frequent but less viable seed crops under rising temperatures.^[55]^[56]^[56]

Conservation and Human Significance

Threats and Conservation Status

According to the IUCN Red List assessments compiled in 2018, approximately 30% of the 37 recognized Nothofagus species—specifically 11—are classified as threatened with extinction, including Endangered or Critically Endangered categories.^[29] These statuses reflect ongoing pressures, with no comprehensive genus-wide reassessment by 2025, though individual species evaluations continue to highlight escalating risks. For instance, N. alessandrii, an endemic Chilean species, remains Endangered due to severe habitat fragmentation and recent mega-fires, though its remnant populations face intensified threats from invasive pines like Pinus radiata.^[32]^[57] The primary threats to Nothofagus species include habitat loss from logging and agricultural expansion, climate change-induced droughts and wildfires, and invasive species competition. A 2025 global conservation gap analysis identified climate change and fire as the most pervasive risks across the genus, particularly in southern South America, where human development exacerbates deforestation. In Chile, fragmented stands of species like N. alessandrii and N. glauca show population declines, for example, the 2017 Las Máquinas mega-fire destroyed 55% of remnant N. alessandrii forests, with over 85% of the affected area experiencing moderate to high severity. Conversely, populations in remote areas of New Guinea remain relatively stable, benefiting from lower human impact despite predicted distributional shifts from warming. Invasive species, such as exotic pines in Chilean coastal ranges, further displace native Nothofagus by altering fire regimes and resource availability. The 2025 gap analysis underscores critical ex situ conservation needs, noting that fewer than 50% of threatened species are adequately represented in seed banks or living collections.^[58]^[59]^[60] Conservation efforts focus on protected areas, seed banking, and targeted restoration projects to mitigate these threats. In Chile, Torres del Paine National Park safeguards populations of N. pumilio and other species through anti-poaching and fire management, while New Zealand's extensive forest reserves protect diverse Nothofagus assemblages under the National Parks Act. Seed banking initiatives, coordinated by Botanic Gardens Conservation International, have prioritized high-risk taxa, though coverage gaps persist for 13 threatened species. In 2025, the Fondation Franklinia launched a capacity-building project in Chile for integrated ex situ and in situ conservation of threatened Nothofagus, including propagation trials and habitat restoration for endemics like N. alessandrii. Genetic monitoring reveals low diversity in fragmented Chilean populations, heightening vulnerability to environmental stressors, as evidenced by studies showing reduced heterozygosity in isolated stands of N. alessandrii and N. obliqua. These efforts aim to enhance resilience, with ongoing assessments tracking population trends to inform adaptive management.^[61]^[58]^[62]^[26]

Uses and Cultural Importance

Nothofagus species provide high-quality timber valued for its durability and workability, particularly in furniture, flooring, and construction across their native ranges in New Zealand and southern South America. In New Zealand, red beech (N. fusca) and silver beech (N. menziesii) have been utilized since the 1970s for high-grade furniture, flooring, and decorative interior finishes, with silver beech employed in similar applications since the 1920s.^[63] In Chile, N. obliqua (roble) is processed into veneer and plywood for furniture and flooring, while N. dombeyi (coihue) serves in structural timbers and cabinetry due to its strength.^[64] Historically, N. dombeyi has been used in Chilean shipbuilding for keels and planking, owing to its resistance to marine borers, a practice dating to the 16th century.^[64] Sustainable harvesting of New Zealand beech species supports domestic industries, replacing diminishing native supplies.^[65] Beyond timber, Nothofagus woods serve as fuelwood and contribute to other practical uses. In rural areas of Chile and Argentina, Nothofagus species are commonly used for fuelwood and charcoal production, which constitutes a significant portion of wood removals from natural forests.^[64] Indigenous communities in Patagonia have traditionally prepared infusions from N. antarctica (ñire) leaves to treat fever, reflecting their role in folk medicine.^[66] In New Zealand, beech honeydew—produced by scale insects on Nothofagus trees and collected by bees—yields a unique, dark honey prized for its flavor and high value in apiculture.^[67] Culturally, Nothofagus holds significance in indigenous traditions of the Southern Hemisphere. In New Zealand, species like silver beech are considered taonga (treasured possessions) by Māori, with timber crafted into weapons, tools, and other artifacts, embodying resilience in lore tied to ancient forests. Among Mapuche communities in Patagonia, N. antarctica forests are integral to cultural practices, including the gathering of medicinal plants and recognition of their role in sustaining traditional livelihoods and folklore as symbols of endurance in harsh environments.^[68] Ornamentally, Nothofagus species are planted in botanic gardens worldwide for their aesthetic appeal and ecological interest, with ex situ collections supporting conservation of threatened taxa.^[69] They also show potential in agroforestry, as demonstrated by silvopastoral systems in Patagonia where N. obliqua integrates with livestock grazing to enhance soil carbon sequestration.^[70] Recent 2025 research highlights their ecosystem services, including biodiversity support in N. antarctica forests and carbon storage capacities that bolster climate regulation in managed stands.^[71]

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Oct 3, 2025 · According to POWO (2025), there are thirty-seven extant species of trees and shrubs in the genus Nothofagus, with further natural and artificial ...
[23]
Hybrid identification in Nothofagus subgenus using high resolution ...
May 9, 2019 · The genus Nothofagus is the main component of southern South American temperate forests. The 40 Nothofagus species, evergreen and deciduous, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Genetic diversity and population structure in Nothofagus pumilio, a ...
Nov 6, 2020 · This study aims to identify priority conservation areas and Genetic Zones (GZs) for N. pumilio, promoting the implementation of specific practices to ensure ...
[25]
Genetic Diversity in Nothofagus alessandrii (Fagaceae), an ...
Usually, species with narrow distributional ranges posses lower levels of genetic diversity than their widespread congeners, because they are associated with ...
[26]
(PDF) Revised circumscription of Nothofagus and recognition of the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Nothofagus is recircumscribed to include five species from southern South America, Lophozonia and Trisyngyne are reinstated, and the new genus Fuscospora is ...
[27]
[PDF] Phylogenetic relationships in Nothofagus: The role of Antarctic fossil ...
Feb 13, 2023 · Contrary to these, species placed in younger clades as subgenus Nothofagus have smaller leaf sizes, more toothed leaves, and less secondary ...
[28]
[PDF] The Red List of Nothofagus
Luckily, many Nothofagus species are found in protected areas. The ex situ survey of Nothofagus, finds twenty species of Nothofagus are held in botanic gardens, ...
[29]
Nothofagus - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The genus includes unisexual flowers in dichasia subtended by a large bract and characterized by unicellular trichomes covering the axes and inflorescence parts ...
[30]
[PDF] Southern Beeches (Nothofagus species). - Species Profile
Performance of different provenances of rauli at 16-17 years after planting on 17 experimental sites across Britain. Values are averages across all sites.
[31]
Updating the distribution of Nothofagus alessandrii
This study investigated the temporal and spatial dynamics of N. alessandrii populations and their implications for habitat fragmentation and connectivity.
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(PDF) Ancient Antarctica the early evolutionary history of Nothofagus
Nov 27, 2022 · The results support a high probability that the ancient ancestor of Nothofagus may have originated in Antarctica during the Late Cretaceous.
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Ancient Antarctica: the early evolutionary history of Nothofagus
### Summary of Nothofagus Evolutionary Origins and Fossil Record
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[PDF] Phylogenetic relationships and time-calibration of the South ...
Oct 29, 2018 · A combination of fossil leaves and pollen records likely leads to more precise estimation of the evolutionary history of Nothofagus (Tanai 1986) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
(PDF) Early Eocene Spore and Pollen Assemblages from the ...
The early Eocene Laguna del Hunco (LH) fossil site, northwestern Chubut Province, Argentina, holds one of the best-preserved and most diverse paleofloras ...
[36]
[PDF] Eocene Plant Diversity at Laguna del Hunco and Rıo Pichileufu ...
Eocene Plant Diversity in Patagonia 647 the Early Cretaceous and of tropical ... Using fossil leaves as paleoprecipitation indicators: an Eocene ex- ample.
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Relaxed Molecular Clock Provides Evidence for Long-Distance ...
Our analyses provide the first unequivocal molecular clock evidence that, whilst some Nothofagus transoceanic distributions are consistent with vicariance,Missing: sexual pollination catkins birds<|separator|>
[38]
Precipitation chemistry in deciduous and evergreen Nothofagus ...
Annual precipitation varied from 5406 to 6559 mm during the studied periods, with about 68-80% as rain and 3220% as snowfall.
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Soil–plant relationships and tree distribution in old growth ...
Nothofagus antarctica (Forster f.) Oersted is a deciduous tree species, which naturally grows on poorly drained or drier eastern sites in the Andes Mountain ...Missing: prefers | Show results with:prefers
[40]
Ectomycorrhizal fungal communities and soil chemistry in harvested ...
The results show that EcM fungal communities in Nothofagus temperate rainforest are highly diverse at the local scale, yet have a high degree of similarity ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
The community composition variation of Russulaceae associated ...
ECM fungi can favor the nutrient uptake of the host, promote plant growth ... Ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity increases phosphorus uptake efficiency of European ...
[42]
Wildfire impact on the soil Funga associated to Nothofagus forests from central-western Patagonia, Argentina - Fire Ecology
Summary of each segment:
[43]
The effect of previous browsing damage on the morphology and ...
Our objective was to gain a better understanding of the long-term effects of deer on Nothofagus forests. In the northern forests dominated by Nothofagus fusca, ...
[44]
Macroscale Analysis of Mistletoe Host Ranges in the Andean ...
All Misodendrum species and Desmaria mutabilis (Loranthaceae) are specialists that use Nothofagus as their primary hosts. Tristerix and Notanthera ...
[45]
Water shortage differentially affects Nothofagus pumilio from ...
Feb 15, 2020 · ... loss and avoid hydraulic failure (Bucci et al., 2008, Martin-StPaul et al., 2017, Flexas et al., 2018), as well as increasing resource use ...
[46]
Factors Driving Unexpected Drought-Induced Nothofagus dombeyi ...
We investigated an unexpected mortality event of Nothofagus dombeyi (Mirb.) Oerst. following the 2014–15 drought in a Valdivian rainforest, Argentina.
[47]
Ecophysiological Responses of Nothofagus obliqua Forests to ...
Mar 27, 2023 · The forests of south-central Chile are facing a drying climate and a megadrought that started in 2010. This study addressed the physiological ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
The anomaly of monodominant tropical rainforests: some ...
Jul 10, 2009 · The environmental factors promoting the formation of these monodominant canopies are uncertain, but appear to involve large-scale disturbance by ...
[49]
[PDF] An intercontinental comparison of the dynamic behavior of mast
The fluctuations caused by pulsed inputs of Nothofagus seed are rapid and well dampened, probably because there are few lags in the system and also because at ...
[50]
DOC ramps up pest control ahead of major mast
Sep 16, 2025 · The predicted beech mast will drop trillions of seeds, fuelling a surge in rodents then stoats – with potentially devastating impacts on native ...
[51]
Episodic regeneration at the Nothofagus pumilio alpine timberline in ...
Feb 26, 2002 · Nevertheless life span far exceeds the typical 10-year period between peaks of seed production or seedling recruitment (Tschermak 1950; Wardle ...
[52]
Masting has different effects on seed predation by insects and birds ...
Sep 15, 2017 · Highly-variable seed production, synchrony and imperfect periodicity was found for Nothofagus. · Fluctuating seed production decreased pre- ...
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Intraspecific variation in masting across climate gradients is ... - NIH
Apr 3, 2025 · Using 437 time series from 19 tree species, we find that this hypothesis fails to fully explain how masting varies across marginality gradients.
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Weather drivers of reproductive variability in perennial plants and ...
Oct 17, 2025 · Seed production in perennial plants often shows strong year-to-year variation, a phenomenon known as masting. Masting is typically adaptive ...
[55]
Wildfires and Invasion of Pinus radiata: A Double Threat to the Ruil ...
Jun 5, 2025 · These remnant forests are dominated by hualo (Nothofagus glauca) and ruil (Nothofagus alessandrii), species classified as Vulnerable (VU) and ...
[56]
First global Conservation Gap Analysis of Nothofagus species ...
Feb 7, 2025 · First global Conservation Gap Analysis of Nothofagus species identifies that less than 50% of species at risk of extinction are in ex situ collections.
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Protecting the future for iconic southern beeches - Kew Gardens
Mar 24, 2025 · How well are we protecting Nothofagus? · Fewer than 50% of the threatened or near-threatened species are in ex-situ collections. · The ex-situ ...
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Nothofagus alessandrii remnant forests threatened by mega-fires ...
Oct 24, 2022 · Nothofagus alessandrii, categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, is an endemic, deciduous tree species of the coastal range of central Chile.Missing: contraction | Show results with:contraction
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[PDF] Impact of protection methods and abiotic factors on Nothofagus ...
Sep 18, 2023 · (2023): Impact of protection methods and abiotic factors on Nothofagus pumilio seedlings mortality in Torres del Paine National Park, Chile.
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Conservation of threatened Nothofagus in Chile - Fondation Franklinia
Jan 16, 2025 · This project aims at building in-country capacity for Nothofagus conservation and implement integrated conservation activities (ex situ and in situ)Missing: initiative | Show results with:initiative
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Southern beech forest | Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Since the 1970s high-grade red beech has been used for furniture, flooring and decorative interior finishes. Silver beech. Since the 1920s silver beech has ...Missing: shipbuilding Chile
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[PDF] Forest Products From Latin America
This document is based on an extensive survey (nearly. 3,000 documents) of the world literature pertaining to. Latin American woods and their use.
[63]
The wood properties of New Zealand silver beech (Nothofagus ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The physical and mechanical properties of New Zealand silver beech were compared with some of the world's more recognized hardwood species.
[64]
In vivo oral toxicity and antioxidant capacity of Nothofagus antarctica ...
N. antarctica leaves have been used by the indigenous people of Patagonia in folk medicine as a remedy for reducing fever (Barboza et al., ...
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Fungi and Forests | ReVista - Harvard University
Oct 26, 2016 · The species of Nothofagus have been, and still are, trees of importance for timber and fuel; the burls, produced on the infected trees, are ...
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Nothofagus menziesii - Wikipedia
N. menziesii has an estimated lifespan of 600 years. Nothofagus menziesii. A mature Nothofagus menziesii specimen in native New Zealand forest, ...
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Mapuche perceptions and conservation of Andean Nothofagus ...
Aug 6, 2025 · This case study showed the importance of considering folk systems and the role that this knowledge has played in plant resource management and ...Missing: Maori | Show results with:Maori<|separator|>
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The Red List and Ex situ Survey of Nothofagus
The Nothofagaceae family is comprised of 37 species, all in the genus Nothofagus. The report assessed all 37 species in this genus, and 11 of these were found ...
[69]
(PDF) Soil Carbon Sequestration in Nothofagus obliqua Forests with ...
Aug 10, 2025 · This study evaluated the impact of silvopastoral systems on soil recovery and their capacity to sequester and stabilize carbon (C) and nitrogen ...
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[PDF] Conservation value and ecosystem service provision of Nothofagus ...
The objective was to compare the conservation value (capacity to support more native biodiversity) and provision of ecosystem services (ES) in different ...