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Obstetrical forceps

Obstetrical forceps are a pair of curved, spoon-shaped metal instruments designed to grasp and gently guide a baby's head through the birth canal during the second stage of labor, serving as an assisted vaginal delivery method to expedite birth when spontaneous delivery is delayed or fetal distress occurs.^[1] The invention of obstetrical forceps is attributed to the Chamberlen family of French Huguenot origin in the late 16th or early 17th century, with Peter Chamberlen the Elder (c. 1560–1631), a surgeon to Queen Henrietta Maria, often credited as the primary innovator.^[2] For nearly a century, the device remained a closely guarded family secret, transported in a locked case and used discreetly during deliveries to maintain exclusivity among the Chamberlens, who were among the first male practitioners in obstetrics.^[2] The secret began to unravel in the late 17th century when Hugh Chamberlen attempted to sell the design in Paris and later to Dutch physicians, leading to broader dissemination by the early 18th century.^[2] Significant advancements followed, including the introduction of the "English lock" mechanism and pelvic curve by Scottish obstetrician William Smellie in the mid-18th century, which improved the instrument's fit and efficacy during delivery.^[2] In the 19th century, further refinements by figures such as James Young Simpson and Robert Barnes enhanced safety and versatility, while Christian Kielland's 1916 design featured straight blades with a sliding lock for rotational deliveries in cases of occiput posterior position.^[2] These evolutions transformed forceps from a rudimentary tool into a specialized instrument classified by types such as outlet, low, mid, and rotational, based on the fetal head's position relative to the maternal pelvis.^[1] In modern practice, forceps delivery requires a fully dilated cervix, a properly positioned fetal head, and an empty maternal bladder, with the procedure involving placement of the blades around the baby's head during a contraction followed by gentle traction synchronized with maternal pushing.^[1] It is typically performed under regional anesthesia and is indicated for conditions like prolonged second-stage labor or fetal heart rate abnormalities, potentially averting cesarean sections.^[1] However, risks include maternal vaginal tears (up to third- or fourth-degree), urinary incontinence, and pelvic prolapse, as well as neonatal complications such as facial nerve palsy, cephalohematoma, or rare fractures.^[1] Contemporary usage of obstetrical forceps has declined significantly due to advances in monitoring, anesthesia, and alternatives like vacuum extraction or cesarean delivery, accounting for only about 0.4% of births (approximately 0.6% of vaginal births) in the United States as of 2023.^[1]^[3] Despite this, forceps remain a vital skill in obstetrics training, emphasizing precise technique to minimize complications, and their application is guided by professional guidelines from bodies like the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, which stress informed consent and multidisciplinary decision-making.^[1]

Overview and Indications

Definition and Purpose

Obstetrical forceps are a double-bladed surgical instrument designed to grasp and extract the fetal head during the second stage of labor in vaginal deliveries.^[4] These instruments resemble a pair of large, curved tongs, with each blade fenestrated to securely hold the fetal head without causing injury, allowing for controlled guidance through the birth canal.^[1] The primary purpose of obstetrical forceps is to shorten the duration of the second stage of labor, thereby protecting maternal and fetal health by mitigating risks associated with prolonged pushing, such as maternal exhaustion or fetal distress.^[4] They serve as an alternative to cesarean section in cases of cephalic presentation, facilitating vaginal birth when immediate delivery is needed but a surgical procedure is not warranted.^[5] By applying gentle traction, often synchronized with maternal contractions, forceps enable safer and faster extraction of the fetus.^[1] Key anatomical adaptations of obstetrical forceps include the cephalic curve, which conforms to the shape of the fetal head for secure grip, and the pelvic curve, which follows the arc of the maternal birth canal to ensure smooth application and minimize tissue trauma.^[4] These curves allow the blades to articulate properly around the fetal skull while accommodating the pelvic anatomy, enhancing the instrument's efficacy in operative vaginal births.^[6]

Medical Indications

Obstetrical forceps are indicated in situations where vaginal delivery is imminent but stalled, typically after full cervical dilation, to facilitate safe and timely birth. Primary indications include maternal exhaustion or ineffective pushing during the second stage of labor, which can prolong delivery and increase risks to both mother and fetus.^[7] Prolonged second stage of labor, defined as more than 3 hours of pushing in nulliparous women or more than 2 hours in multiparous women (or 2 hours and 1 hour, respectively, without epidural) without progress, also warrants forceps use to prevent further complications.^[7] Fetal distress, evidenced by nonreassuring fetal heart rate patterns suggesting immediate or potential compromise, is another key indication, as forceps can expedite delivery faster than cesarean in appropriate cases.^[7] Forceps are recommended for expedited delivery in maternal conditions that contraindicate prolonged pushing, such as cardiac disease, where extended Valsalva maneuvers may exacerbate hemodynamic stress.^[7] Similarly, active hemorrhage or severe preeclampsia may necessitate rapid intervention to stabilize the mother while achieving vaginal birth.^[7] In cases of glaucoma, assisted vaginal delivery with forceps is advised to minimize intraocular pressure spikes from voluntary pushing efforts.^[8] In select breech vaginal deliveries, specialized Piper forceps may be used by experienced practitioners to assist extraction of the aftercoming head.^[7] According to American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) guidelines, forceps-assisted delivery should only proceed when prerequisites like engaged fetal head and known position are met, emphasizing its role in shortening the second stage for maternal or fetal benefit.^[7] In high-resource settings, such as the United States, forceps account for approximately 0.5% of all vaginal deliveries as of 2015, reflecting a decline due to increased cesarean rates and vacuum alternatives.^[9]

Contraindications

Obstetrical forceps delivery carries significant risks when applied inappropriately, necessitating strict contraindications to protect maternal and fetal well-being. Absolute contraindications include an unengaged fetal head at a high station (station < 0), as engagement is essential for safe instrumentation and reduces the risk of failed delivery or trauma.^[7] An unknown fetal position or presentation also absolutely contraindicates use, since accurate determination via vaginal examination is required to ensure proper blade placement and avoid malapplication.^[4] Fetal malformations, such as hydrocephalus causing macrocephaly or bone demineralization disorders like osteogenesis imperfecta, prohibit forceps due to heightened vulnerability to skull fracture or hemorrhage.^[7] Similarly, maternal pelvic abnormalities, including a contracted pelvis or cephalopelvic disproportion, render forceps futile and dangerous, as they impede descent and increase injury risk.^[4] Relative contraindications involve scenarios where forceps may be considered with extreme caution but are often outweighed by safer alternatives. Maternal coagulopathy, such as thrombocytopenia or von Willebrand disease, is relatively contraindicated due to elevated bleeding risks during instrumentation.^[7] Untreated maternal infections, particularly pelvic or genital tract infections, pose relative risks by potentially worsening with tissue trauma from forceps.^[4] Operator inexperience qualifies as a relative contraindication, as unskilled application correlates with higher complication rates, emphasizing the need for proficient providers.^[7] Additionally, when cesarean delivery is deemed safer—such as in cases of borderline fetal distress or macrosomia—forceps should be avoided to minimize harm.^[4] Diagnostic prerequisites are critical to rule out contraindications prior to forceps application. Cephalic presentation and fetal station must be verified through vaginal examination or ultrasound, with avoidance recommended for high stations (station < 0), as these positions increase failure and injury risks.^[7] The cervix must be fully dilated and retracted, membranes ruptured, and maternal pelvis assessed as adequate for vaginal birth.^[4] Guidelines from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO), and World Health Organization (WHO) stress prioritizing non-operative alternatives, such as cesarean section, when any contraindication exists to avert preventable maternal and fetal harm.^[7]

Design and Types

Basic Components

Obstetrical forceps consist of two articulated blades that together form the primary structure for grasping and extracting the fetal head during delivery. Each blade, which may be fenestrated or solid, is connected to the handle by a shank that provides the necessary length for application within the birth canal. The handles, typically finger-ring style, allow the operator to securely grip and apply controlled traction. The blades articulate via a lock mechanism located at the junction of the shanks, with common types including the English lock—a fixed groove or slot for rapid engagement—and the sliding lock, which permits relative movement between the blades for rotational adjustments.^[4]^[10]^[11] The blades feature two essential curves: the cephalic curve, with a radius of approximately 10-15 cm designed to gently cradle the fetal head without excessive compression, and the pelvic curve, which aligns the instrument with the maternal pelvic axis to facilitate smooth traction. These curves ensure that force is distributed evenly across the fetal skull while following the natural contours of the birth canal. Shanks may be parallel or overlapping depending on the forceps design, but all contribute to maintaining blade alignment during use.^[4]^[10]^[11] Traditional obstetrical forceps are constructed from stainless steel, valued for its durability, corrosion resistance, and ability to withstand repeated sterilization processes such as autoclaving. More recent innovations include disposable variants incorporating plastic components, often reinforced polymers like polyarylamide, to reduce infection risks in single-use scenarios and simplify waste management. Biomechanically, traction is applied through the handles along the pelvic axis to mimic natural labor forces, with recommended limits typically not exceeding 45 pounds (200 N) to minimize risks of fetal or maternal injury.^[12]^[13]^[14]

Major Classifications

Obstetrical forceps are classified primarily by their design features, including the shape and curvature of the blades, the type of lock mechanism, and overall length, which influence their suitability for specific fetal presentations and pelvic conditions.^[15] These classifications extend beyond the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) system, which categorizes deliveries by fetal station (outlet, low, or mid) rather than instrument design.^[16] Traditional groupings include Anglo-American and French variants, with additional categorizations based on blade fenestration, lock types, and length to accommodate variations in fetal head molding and station.^[17]^[15] Anglo-American forceps, derived from English and early American modifications, feature parallel or overlapping shanks and are optimized for cephalic presentations in the United States and United Kingdom. The Simpson forceps have fenestrated blades with a short, rounded cephalic curve and an English lock (pinned), making them ideal for unmolded fetal heads in straightforward occiput anterior positions.^[15]^[17] Elliot forceps, with solid blades, overlapping shanks, and a pivot lock, include a longer, tapered cephalic curve suited for molded heads, providing enhanced grip during traction.^[15] Kielland forceps are distinguished by a minimal pelvic curve, sliding lock, and nearly straight blades, enabling rotation of the fetal head from occiput transverse or posterior positions without excessive force.^[15]^[17] Wrigley forceps are short (approximately 28 cm), with a gentle curve and English lock, designed for low or outlet deliveries where the fetal head is visible at the introitus.^[18] Piper forceps feature long shanks with a reverse pelvic curve, specifically for stabilizing and extracting the aftercoming head in breech presentations.^[15]^[17] French forceps, originating from continental European designs, emphasize a pronounced pelvic curve to align with the maternal pelvis and often include axis-traction mechanisms for higher stations. The Levret forceps, developed in the 18th century, have shorter blades with a significant pelvic curve to minimize maternal trauma during application.^[15] Tarnier forceps incorporate an axis-traction handle, allowing traction along the pelvic axis for midforceps deliveries, which reduces lateral pressure on the fetal head.^[15] These differ from Anglo-American types in their longer overall length and focus on adapting to the pelvic canal's curvature.^[15] Additional classifications organize forceps by lock mechanism, blade design, and length. Locks are typically English (fixed pin for parallel shanks, as in Simpson) or French (sliding for rotation, as in Kielland), with pivot locks (as in Elliot) providing adjustability.^[15] Blades may be fenestrated (perforated for better grip on molded heads, e.g., Simpson) or solid (smooth for reduced marking, e.g., Tucker-McLane variant of Elliot).^[15] Length categorizes them as short (under 30 cm for low applications, e.g., Wrigley) or long (over 35 cm for mid-pelvic use, e.g., Kielland).^[18]^[15] Selection of forceps type depends on fetal station (e.g., low for Wrigley, mid for Tarnier) and position (e.g., Kielland for occiput posterior rotation to align with the pelvic axis).^[19]^[15] For occiput anterior, Simpson or Elliot types are preferred due to their cephalic curves matching the head's shape, while rotational needs favor Kielland's sliding mechanism.^[15] Piper is reserved for breech aftercoming heads to prevent entrapment.^[17] In recent developments since the 2020s, disposable forceps made from medical-grade plastic have emerged to reduce infection risks in resource-limited settings, though they are less common for obstetrical use than reusable metal types.^[20] Sensor-equipped variants, such as those with pressure sensors on blades or adaptable force-monitoring devices, allow real-time measurement of applied force to minimize trauma, with prototypes validated for clinical training and use.^[21]^[22]

Procedure and Technique

Preparation and Prerequisites

Before attempting an obstetrical forceps delivery, thorough patient preparation is essential to minimize risks and facilitate the procedure. The maternal bladder should be emptied via catheterization to allow for better descent of the fetal head and reduce the risk of trauma during instrumentation. Adequate anesthesia must be ensured, typically through a pudendal nerve block, epidural analgesia, or local perineal infiltration, to provide sufficient pain relief and muscle relaxation. The patient is positioned in the lithotomy stance with legs supported in stirrups to optimize access to the perineum and vaginal canal. Fetal assessment is a critical prerequisite to confirm suitability for forceps application. The fetal presentation must be vertex (cephalic), with the head engaged in the pelvis, verified through abdominal palpation and vaginal examination. The station of the fetal head should be determined relative to the ischial spines, such as +3 cm for an outlet procedure, using digital vaginal exam to assess descent; ultrasound may be employed adjunctively if clinical evaluation is equivocal. The position of the fetal head, such as occiput anterior, must also be accurately identified via palpation of the sagittal suture and fontanelles to guide proper forceps placement. The procedure requires an experienced operator, such as an obstetrician with documented privileges for operative vaginal delivery, who has obtained informed consent from the patient after discussing the indications, alternatives, and potential complications. A backup plan must be in place, including immediate availability of personnel and facilities for cesarean delivery should the forceps attempt fail. If contraindications such as fetal malpresentation or maternal exhaustion precluding pushing are present, forceps delivery should not proceed. Environmental setup ensures a controlled and sterile operating field. The delivery room must be equipped with adequate lighting, suction devices for airway clearance, and sterile instruments, including the selected forceps and supplies for episiotomy or laceration repair if needed. According to ACOG guidelines (as of 2024), a trial of instrumental delivery may be considered for prolonged second stage of labor, defined as no progress after at least 3 hours of pushing in nulliparous women or 2 hours in multiparous women, with additional time appropriate based on individual clinical factors including epidural analgesia, fetal status, and maternal condition.^[23]

Application Methods

Obstetrical forceps application is classified by the station of the fetal head in the birth canal, which determines the level of difficulty and appropriate technique. Outlet forceps are used when the scalp is visible at the introitus without separating the labia, corresponding to a +3 station, with the fetal skull on the pelvic floor, sagittal suture in the anteroposterior diameter, and rotation ≤45° from occiput anterior. Low forceps are applied when the leading point of the fetal skull is at station +2 or greater (but not meeting outlet criteria), including cases with rotation ≤45° or >45° but ≤45° from occiput anterior or posterior. Midforceps are indicated when the head is engaged (station 0/3 or deeper) but above +2 station. High forceps, above station 0, are outdated and no longer recommended due to high risks.^[4]^[16] The technique begins with the operator positioned at the foot of the bed, facing the maternal perineum in the lithotomy position, ensuring proper analgesia and bladder emptying. The right blade is inserted first along the right side of the fetal head, followed by the left blade, using one hand to protect the maternal perineum and the other to guide the blade over the fetal ear. Handles are then locked, confirming correct application by ensuring the sagittal suture is equidistant between the blades, the posterior fontanelle is one fingerbreadth above the shanks, and no maternal tissue is grasped. An episiotomy may be performed if needed to provide space. Gentle traction is applied along the pelvic axis using the Saxtorph-Pajot maneuver (pulling with forearms extended), synchronized with uterine contractions and maternal pushing. If rotation is required, such as for occiput transverse or posterior positions, Kielland forceps may be used for 45–90° adjustments between contractions. After the biparietal diameter passes the vulvar ring, the blades are removed in reverse order (left then right) before completing delivery of the head.^[4] Traction mechanics emphasize controlled, intermittent pulls to mimic natural descent, avoiding constant or rocking force that could cause injury. Each pull is limited to a maximum of 30 pounds of force (lbf), applied only during contractions and maternal efforts, with the operator's hands maintaining alignment with the pelvic curve. Easy descent with minimal effort indicates proper application; excessive resistance prompts reassessment or abandonment. Forceps are removed immediately after head delivery to prevent complications.^[4] Success rates for forceps application vary by station, with 85–90% achievement for low and outlet procedures, reflecting their relative ease and lower fetal head depth. Midforceps deliveries have lower success, often due to greater rotational needs and higher resistance. Failed attempts occur in 10–20% of cases, typically leading to emergent cesarean section to avoid prolonged labor or injury.^[4]

Risks and Complications

Fetal Risks

Obstetrical forceps delivery can result in several minor adverse effects on the fetus, primarily due to direct mechanical pressure on the head during application. Facial bruising and marks from the forceps blades occur frequently but typically resolve without intervention within days to weeks. Cephalohematoma, a subperiosteal collection of blood over the fetal skull, affects approximately 1-2% of all deliveries but carries a 4-5 times higher risk with forceps use compared to spontaneous vaginal birth. Transient facial nerve palsy, often caused by compression of the nerve against the ramus of the mandible, is another common minor complication, with most cases resolving spontaneously within days to two months.^[24] More serious fetal risks involve deeper tissue or neurological injury, though these are less frequent. Brachial plexus injury, leading to temporary or permanent arm weakness (such as Erb's palsy), has an overall incidence of about 0.15% in newborns and is associated with forceps-assisted delivery, particularly when traction is applied. Skull fractures may occur in cases of difficult extraction, while intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) is a notable concern, with an incidence of approximately 1.5 per 1,000 forceps deliveries—about 1.7 times higher than in spontaneous vaginal births (approximately 0.9 per 1,000).^[24]^[25]^[4] Prolonged application or excessive force can contribute to hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, exacerbating brain injury from oxygen deprivation during labor.^[24] Long-term outcomes are generally favorable, but a rare association exists with cerebral palsy, with some studies reporting an increased odds ratio of 1.2-2.0 for instrumental deliveries compared to unassisted vaginal births; however, this risk appears lower for forceps than for vacuum extraction in certain meta-analyses. Neurodevelopmental delays or cognitive impairments are uncommon and often linked more to underlying labor complications than the forceps themselves.^[26]^[27] Risks are notably higher with midforceps procedures (head at or above +2 station) compared to outlet forceps (scalp visible at introitus), with midforceps conferring up to a fourfold increase in ICH and other traumas due to greater manipulation and traction. Proper operator technique, including accurate blade placement and limited force, significantly mitigates these risks, emphasizing the need for experienced practitioners.^[4]^[28]

Maternal Risks

The use of obstetrical forceps during vaginal delivery is associated with a heightened risk of perineal trauma, particularly third- and fourth-degree lacerations, which involve the anal sphincter and rectal mucosa, respectively. These severe lacerations occur in approximately 20-30% of forceps-assisted deliveries, often necessitating surgical repair with sutures to restore tissue integrity and function. Forceps delivery is associated with a higher rate of severe perineal lacerations compared to vacuum extraction (odds ratio approximately 1.8).^[29]^[30] Such injuries can lead to anal sphincter damage, increasing the likelihood of long-term complications like fecal incontinence.^[31] Additional maternal complications include vaginal hematoma formation, where blood accumulates in the vaginal wall due to vessel trauma from the forceps application, and postpartum hemorrhage, often resulting from lacerations or uterine atony exacerbated by the procedure. Long-term risks encompass urinary and fecal incontinence, affecting 5-10% of women, as well as uterine prolapse, stemming from pelvic floor muscle weakening and levator ani avulsion associated with forceps use.^[32]^[33]^[31] Recovery from forceps delivery frequently involves prolonged perineal pain, requiring analgesics and extended monitoring, alongside an elevated risk of infection at the laceration site, which may necessitate antibiotics. Women undergoing forceps delivery typically experience longer hospital stays compared to those with spontaneous vaginal births, due to these complications and the need for wound care.^[4]^[1] In comparisons, forceps delivery carries a higher rate of severe perineal lacerations than vacuum extraction (odds ratio 1.5), though the risk profile is similar to that of midpelvic forceps procedures transitioning to cesarean section.^[34]

History and Evolution

Origins and Early Development

The origins of obstetrical forceps trace back to ancient civilizations, where crude instruments were occasionally referenced for operative deliveries, though primarily for extracting dead fetuses to save the mother. For instance, Hindu medical texts from the 6th century BC describe instrumental vaginal delivery, while Greek and Roman sources around 500 BC to 500 AD, including Hippocratic writings, mention tools like hooks or forceps for similar purposes.^[2] The modern form of obstetrical forceps is widely attributed to the Chamberlen family of French Huguenot origin, who emigrated to England in the late 16th century. Peter Chamberlen the Elder (1560–1631), a barber-surgeon, is credited with inventing the instrument around the 1620s, designing it as two interlocking metal blades to grasp and extract the fetal head during difficult labors, thereby enabling live births in obstructed cases.^[35]^[36] The family guarded this innovation as a trade secret for nearly 150 years, passing it down through generations and using it exclusively in their practice; they transported the forceps in a locked, ornate wooden box and employed dramatic tactics during deliveries, such as blindfolding the mother, covering her with blankets, and making noises to conceal the instrument's application.^[2] This secrecy was occasionally challenged, as when Hugh Chamberlen the Elder attempted to sell the design to French obstetrician François Mauriceau in 1670 but failed, though partial leaks occurred, including one blade sold to Dutch practitioner Roger Roonhuysen in the late 17th century.^[35] The original Chamberlen forceps, characterized by straight blades without a pelvic curve, were only publicly discovered in 1813 beneath the floorboards of the family's Essex home.^[2] The forceps entered wider medical use in the 18th century after the secret began to unravel through apprentices and demonstrations. Scottish obstetrician William Smellie (1697–1763) played a pivotal role in publicizing and refining the instrument; in 1752, he published detailed descriptions and illustrations in his Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Midwifery, introducing an "English lock" for secure blade alignment and a pelvic curve based on anatomical measurements to reduce maternal trauma.^[2]^[37] Concurrently, French obstetrician André Levret (1703–1780) independently advanced the design around 1747, adding a pronounced pelvic curve to better conform to the birth canal's axis, which minimized injury and became a standard feature in continental Europe.^[38]^[35] In 1848, Scottish surgeon James Young Simpson (1811–1870) further modified the forceps with shorter, oval-shaped, fenestrated blades suited for molded fetal heads, enhancing grip and ease of use; these "Simpson forceps" with an English lock quickly gained popularity in Britain.^[36]^[39] Key advancements continued into the late 19th and early 20th centuries, focusing on biomechanics and rotation. In 1877, French obstetrician Étienne Stéphane Tarnier (1828–1897) introduced axis-traction forceps, incorporating a handle extension to apply traction along the pelvic axis, reducing rotational force on the fetal head and maternal tissues.^[37]^[40] This innovation addressed the limitations of earlier straight-traction designs. In 1915, Norwegian obstetrician Christian Kielland (1871–1941) developed rotational forceps with minimal pelvic curve and a sliding lock, specifically for correcting deep transverse arrests by rotating the fetal head without excessive force, marking a significant step in handling malpositions.30357-1/fulltext)^[41] These milestones shifted forceps from a secretive tool to a refined instrument integral to obstetric practice.

Impact on Childbirth Practices

The introduction of obstetrical forceps in the 18th century played a pivotal role in the medicalization of childbirth, facilitating a transition from midwife-dominated home births to physician-led interventions in clinical settings. Prior to widespread forceps use, deliveries were primarily managed by female midwives in community environments, with male practitioners intervening only in extreme cases using crude or destructive methods. The popularization of forceps by obstetricians like William Smellie enabled male physicians to assume greater authority, promoting hospital-based care and standardizing obstetric training through institutions such as lying-in hospitals. This shift, accelerating from the mid-18th century onward, marginalized traditional midwifery and entrenched medical oversight in labor and delivery.^[36]^[42]^[43] Forceps also diminished the necessity for more invasive procedures, such as symphysiotomy or fetal dismemberment, which were common in obstructed labors before reliable instrumentation. By allowing controlled traction on the fetal head, forceps supported safer operative vaginal deliveries, contributing to the establishment of formalized obstetric education and the growth of specialized hospitals dedicated to maternity care. These developments professionalized obstetrics as a male-dominated field, integrating surgical techniques into routine practice and fostering a culture of interventionism that prioritized institutional efficiency over traditional birthing support networks.^[36]^[44] However, the early and often untrained application of forceps resulted in substantial complications, including high incidences of puerperal infection, severe perineal and cervical lacerations, and fetal trauma such as skull fractures or nerve damage. In the 19th century, these risks were exacerbated by poor antisepsis and operator inexperience, leading to maternal mortality rates in forceps-assisted deliveries that were markedly elevated—ranging from 2.7% to 3.9% in documented cases, and up to 10% in high-risk institutional settings plagued by sepsis outbreaks. Such outcomes underscored the dangers of premature adoption without rigorous protocols, prompting ongoing debates within the medical community about the balance between intervention and natural labor.^[43]^[45]00962-8/fulltext) Ethically, the forceps' history evolved from the Chamberlen family's secretive monopoly in the 17th century, which prioritized profit over dissemination, to greater accessibility following its exposure in the 1730s and integration into medical curricula by the late 18th century. This openness facilitated broader training but also encouraged overuse, particularly of high forceps applications in the early 20th century, raising concerns about unnecessary trauma and iatrogenic harm. By the 1920s, these issues led to regulatory pushes, including discouragement of high forceps by influential obstetricians like Joseph DeLee, who advocated for prophylactic use but highlighted the need for stricter guidelines to curb excesses and protect maternal-fetal well-being.^[36]^[46]

Modern Developments and Trends

In developed countries, the use of obstetrical forceps has significantly declined over recent decades, dropping from approximately 10% of all vaginal deliveries in the 1990s to less than 1% by the 2020s, primarily due to the parallel rise in cesarean section rates to around 32% and a shift toward vacuum extraction as the preferred instrumental method.^[16]^[47]^[48] This trend reflects broader changes in obstetric practices, where operative vaginal deliveries overall have fallen to about 3% of all births, with forceps comprising only a fraction of those procedures.^[9] Contemporary innovations aim to address training gaps and enhance safety amid declining proficiency. Simulation-based training, including virtual reality (VR) models introduced in the 2010s, has become integral for teaching forceps application without risking patients, improving procedural skills and reducing errors in simulated scenarios.^[49] Recent prototypes incorporate force-monitoring sensors into forceps blades to provide real-time feedback on traction pressure, with developments reported as early as 2023 to minimize fetal and maternal trauma during use.^[50] These advancements, often integrated into mixed-reality systems, allow for precise measurement of applied forces, fostering safer techniques in controlled environments.^[51] Alternatives to forceps include vacuum extraction and cesarean section, each with distinct risk-benefit profiles. Vacuum extraction is favored for its association with lower maternal perineal trauma compared to forceps, though it carries a higher risk of fetal scalp injuries, such as cephalhematoma and certain intracranial hemorrhages.^[52]^[53] Cesarean sections offer greater safety for midpelvic deliveries by avoiding instrumental risks but introduce surgical complications, including infection and longer recovery times, contributing to their increased adoption.^[4] Globally, forceps usage remains higher in low-resource settings, accounting for 5-10% of deliveries where access to cesareans is limited, though overall operative vaginal rates vary due to equipment and skill constraints.^[54] The World Health Organization emphasizes comprehensive training programs to reduce complications from operative vaginal births in these contexts, highlighting the need for skilled providers to maintain efficacy.^[55] A 2023 study in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology found that forceps deliveries were associated with lower rates of intracranial hemorrhage in neonates compared to vacuum extraction, underscoring potential advantages in select cases despite the overall decline.^[47]

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The sensing attachment is separate from the device, and can be added upon physician's request during training to provide real-time visual feedback about the.Missing: equipped | Show results with:equipped
[22]
Neurological Neonatal Birth Injuries: A Literature Review - PMC
There is a four to five times increase in the risk of cephalohematoma with forceps usage, an eight to nine times risk with vacuum-assisted delivery and 11-12 ...
[23]
Does Mode of Delivery Affect Risk for Intracranial Hemorrhage?
Feb 1, 2000 · Intracranial hemorrhage occurred in 1 of every 664 babies delivered with forceps, 1 of every 860 delivered by vacuum extraction, 1 of every 907 ...Missing: incidence | Show results with:incidence
[24]
Intra natal factors associated with cerebral palsy
History of forceps delivery is observed in 9 and 2 cases of CP and normal children respectively, with odds ratio of 4.708 with confidence interval ranging from ...
[25]
Declining prevalence of cerebral palsy in children born at term in ...
Dec 20, 2021 · Compared with vaginal delivery, there was an increased risk of CP in instrumental delivery, emergency caesarean section, and planned caesarean ...
[26]
Forceps Delivery and Vacuum Extraction | GLOWM
The shanks meet at a fulcrum point, where a lock joins them (Fig. 4). There are several lock configurations, but the most common are the English and sliding ...
[27]
Risk factors for third-degree and fourth-degree perineal lacerations ...
Third- and fourth-degree lacerations occurred in 30% of deliveries. Multiple logistic regression was used to control for intercorrelation between potential risk ...Missing: incidence | Show results with:incidence
[28]
Forceps delivery is associated with increased risk of pelvic organ ...
Forceps delivery is associated with increased risk of pelvic organ prolapse and muscle trauma: a cross-sectional study 16-24 years after first delivery.
[29]
Perineal Lacerations - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Aug 11, 2024 · Third Degree: second-degree laceration with the involvement of the ... [4][5][8][11] The most common risk factors for OASIS injuries are forceps ...
[30]
Forceps delivery is associated with increased risk of pelvic organ ...
Apr 29, 2015 · Forceps delivery had increased risks of POP or surgery and levator avulsion and was associated with larger hiatal area compared with vacuum and normal vaginal ...
[31]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25920322/
[32]
Forceps: a brief history - Hektoen International
Jan 27, 2017 · Some influential obstetricians' noted that the device caused at least as many issues as it resolved. Forceps use involved perineal trauma ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[33]
None
### Historical Timeline of Obstetrical Forceps (Origins to Early 20th Century)
[34]
Tarnier's Axis Traction forceps, Paris, France, 1871-1900
In 1877, French obstetrician Etienne Tanier (1828-1897) introduced the most important innovation in obstetrical forceps during the 1800s.
[35]
Levret type obstetrical forceps, Paris, France, 1801-1850
These forceps had a pronounced pelvic curve. This minimised damage or trauma to the mother. They were developed by Andre Levret (1703-1780) in 1747.
[36]
Simpson type obstetrical forceps, London, England, 1871-1900
These are long obstetrical forceps following the design of Sir James Young Simpson (1811-1870). They are longer and heavier than Simpson's type of short ...Missing: oval | Show results with:oval
[37]
Tarnier, Étienne Stéphane (1828–1897) - Eponyms and Names in ...
However, it was Stéphane Tarnier who developed the first logical and effective axis-traction forceps. In his 1877 monograph on the subject Tarnier outlined his ...<|separator|>
[38]
Rotational forceps - ResearchGate
In 1915, Christian Kielland (1871-1941) first described his forceps to achieve birth from the midpelvis in cases of malrotation (OP and occipito-transverse [OT] ...
[39]
How forceps permanently changed the way humans are born
Oct 24, 2019 · The capability to intervene in childbirth began to shift the balance of preferred expertise toward those who could wield surgical instruments.
[40]
Has the medicalisation of childbirth gone too far? - PMC - NIH
Instrumental delivery with forceps became the hallmark of the obstetric era. In the 19th and 20th centuries, medical influence was extended further by the ...
[41]
The Influence of Social Values on Obstetric Anesthesia
The first women's movement in the mid-nineteenth century endorsed anesthesia during childbirth and some of the very patterns of obstetric practice that ...
[42]
The Decline in Maternal Mortality in Sweden | AJPH | Vol. 94 Issue 8
Oct 10, 2011 · The midwives used forceps in only 1 of 133 to 180 deliveries, with a case fatality rate of 27 to 39 deaths per 1000 operations.
[43]
“The Prophylactic Forceps Operation” (1920), by Joseph Bolivar ...
Apr 18, 2021 · In 1920, Joseph Bolivar DeLee published the article, “The Prophylactic Forceps Operation,” in which he describes how physicians can manually ...
[44]
Assisted vaginal birth in 21st century: current practice and new ...
Jul 27, 2023 · In this article, we argue that assisted vaginal birth is a skilled and safe option that should always be considered and be available as an option for women who ...
[45]
None
Summary of each segment:
[46]
Exploring the Efficacy of Virtual Reality Training in Obstetric ... - NIH
Apr 1, 2025 · This systematic review examines the efficacy of VR in obstetric training and patient care, focusing on its impact on educational engagement, procedural skill ...Missing: forceps force- hybrid
[47]
The Development of a Forceps-Adaptable Pressure Device ... - MDPI
The purpose of this work was to create an adaptable pressure measurement device for use with existing clinical forceps. In training, this allows for objective ...
[48]
Obstetric MR - Mixed Reality Enhanced Learning System
Obstetric MR is a new mixed reality simulation experience designed to help learners translate theory into practice and achieve clinical competency faster ...
[49]
Vacuum extraction versus forceps for assisted vaginal delivery
Use of the vacuum extractor for assisted vaginal delivery when compared to forceps delivery was associated with significantly less maternal trauma.
[50]
Comparison of Maternal and Infant Outcomes between Vacuum ...
The California investigators found that the rate of intracranial hemorrhage was higher among infants delivered by vacuum extraction, forceps, or cesarean ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
[PDF] Instrumental vaginal delivery “A dying Act” in low resource setting
Vacuum accounted for 88.2% while forceps accounted for 11.8%. This is similar to figures in some Nigerian studies and other low and middle income countries.
[52]
Research gaps and needs to optimize the use of assisted vaginal birth
Jun 6, 2023 · Education and training are, therefore, considered crucial for building skills and confidence in conducting AVB and there is evidence that it ...