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Odhner Arithmometer

The Odhner Arithmometer is a mechanical pinwheel calculator invented by Swedish engineer Willgodt Theophil Odhner (1845–1905) in 1875, while he was employed at a factory in Saint Petersburg, Russia.^[1]^[2] It performs the four fundamental arithmetic operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—using a system of variable-length pinwheels for input and registers for results and counting, offering a compact and reliable alternative to earlier designs like the Thomas Arithmometer.^[1]^[2] Odhner's innovation simplified the mechanism with fewer moving parts, enabling easier manufacturing and operation, and it was granted U.S. Patent No. 209,416 on October 29, 1878.^[3]^[4] Odhner developed the first working prototype by late 1875, followed by a practical model in 1876, with initial hand-built production of about 14 units beginning in 1877 at Ludvig Nobel's machine works in Russia.^[1] Mass production commenced around 1890 in Saint Petersburg under Odhner's supervision, initially with 9- or 10-digit capacity models featuring a fixed input section and movable result register to enhance efficiency.^[2]^[1] The device gained popularity for its portability and accuracy, particularly in business and engineering applications, and by the early 20th century, thousands had been produced and exported globally despite Russia's limited industrial export history at the time.^[1] The Odhner Arithmometer's success led to international licensing agreements, including with Germany's Grimme, Natalis & Co. (producing it as the Brunsviga from 1892) and adaptations in Sweden after the 1917 Russian Revolution disrupted Russian operations.^[2] In Russia, production continued under state control as the Arithmometer Felix from 1928 until the 1950s, while Swedish manufacturing persisted until 1973, with specialized variants like the LuSiD model for British currency calculations.^[2] Its enduring design influenced subsequent pinwheel calculators and marked a pivotal advancement in mechanical computation, bridging 19th-century prototypes to widespread office use before electronic alternatives emerged.^[2]^[1]

Development and History

Invention and Early Prototypes

Willgodt Theophil Odhner, born on August 10, 1845, in Westby, Dalby parish, in northern Värmland province, Sweden, was the eldest son of a family with limited means.^[5] Facing scarce employment opportunities in Sweden after studying at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm without completing his degree, Odhner immigrated to St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1868 at the age of 23.^[1] There, he initially worked at Macpherson’s workshop before joining Ludvig Nobel’s mechanical factory in 1868 or 1869, where he advanced from machinist to foreman, gaining expertise in modern manufacturing techniques while contributing to projects like rifle conversions.^[1]^[5] In 1871, while repairing a Thomas de Colmar Arithmometer at Nobel’s factory, Odhner identified key limitations in existing calculating machines, particularly the heavy Leibniz stepped cylinder that made setting variable digits cumbersome and mechanically demanding.^[1] This experience inspired him to conceive a lighter alternative using a pin wheel mechanism, which would allow for more flexible and efficient digit adjustment while maintaining reliable arithmetic operations.^[5] Working in his spare time with support from Ludvig Nobel, Odhner focused his design on simplifying the core components to produce a compact, affordable device capable primarily of addition and multiplication.^[1] Odhner completed his first working prototype of the arithmometer in 1875, marking a significant milestone in his development efforts.^[5] By late 1877, he had hand-built 14 such machines at Nobel’s factory, which were delivered to Ludvig Nobel for rigorous testing in complex oil industry calculations, including financial and logistical computations essential to the burgeoning Russian petroleum sector.^[6] These early prototypes faced notable challenges, including the labor-intensive manual construction process that limited scalability, the absence of protective patents—which Odhner did not file until 1878—and a deliberate emphasis on basic functions to ensure mechanical reliability before expanding capabilities.^[1]^[5]

Patents and Initial Production

Willgodt Theophil Odhner secured his initial patent for the arithmometer in Russia in 1879, registered under Königsberger & Co., as a three-year privilege (No. 148).^[1] This was complemented by international protections, including a German patent (No. 7393, filed November 19, 1878) and a Swedish patent (No. 123, 1879), as well as a U.S. patent (No. 209416, granted October 29, 1878, after revisions to the original filing).^[1] These patents covered the core pinwheel mechanism, enabling variable-toothed gears for efficient multiplication and addition, though France's initial coverage came later with the 1890 improved version (No. 261806, August 29).^[3] In 1890, Odhner obtained a new Russian patent (No. 315, applied June 21) for an enhanced model, granting a 10-year privilege and extending protections to countries including France, Belgium (No. 91812, September 15), Sweden (No. 3264, September 26), and Austria-Hungary.^[7] Key improvements focused on the carry mechanism, incorporating an extra pinion between the pinwheel and number wheel to improve efficiency and reliability during operations.^[7] Additionally, the design added full subtraction and division capabilities by simplifying input reversal—achieved by turning the crank backward—alongside complementary dials for 9's complement entry and sliding levers to facilitate these functions without complex reconfiguration.^[1] Odhner established his independent workshop in St. Petersburg at Rizhskii Prospekt 26 in 1886, transitioning from earlier prototype assembly at Ludvig Nobel's factory.^[7] Industrial production commenced in 1890 with the improved model, utilizing a 2 H.P. steam engine and a workforce of about 20, yielding approximately 500 units over the first two years (1890–1891).^[3] Early sales targeted Russian businesses, particularly in engineering firms and financial institutions, where the machine's reliability supported complex calculations; initial exports included units to Sweden via agent Arvid Åhlin as early as September 1890.^[7]

Design and Operation

Core Mechanism

The core mechanism of the Odhner Arithmometer revolves around its innovative pinwheel system, which consists of a series of rotating brass disks—one for each digit position—each equipped with nine retractable pins arranged radially around the disk's circumference.^[8] By turning a slotted setting wheel or lever associated with each disk, the operator extends a variable number of these pins (from zero to nine), determining the digit's value; the extended pins then function as temporary gear teeth during operation.^[9] When the machine's operating crank is turned, the pinwheel disks rotate and engage with corresponding star wheels or sliding racks in the accumulator or counter registers, advancing the result gears by a distance proportional to the number of engaged pins, thus performing addition or subtraction directly.^[8] This pinwheel design marked a significant advancement over the earlier Leibniz wheel, or stepped reckoner, which relied on cylindrical drums with fixed, varying-length teeth that always presented some resistance even at zero, leading to higher inertia and manufacturing complexity.^[8] In contrast, the Odhner pinwheel's pins fully retract into the disk for the zero position, minimizing weight and rotational inertia through lighter brass construction, which allowed for smoother operation and easier production at lower cost.^[10] The pins, typically small rectangular brass pieces measuring about 1.5 mm by 1.7 mm by 10 mm and staggered angularly for even engagement, ensure precise proportional drive without the need for complex variable gearing.^[9] The carry mechanism employs an automatic transfer system for handling digit overflows during addition and subtraction, utilizing Geneva cams to provide intermittent motion to the wheels and sliding racks that propagate the carry across positions.^[9] When a digit wheel reaches nine and requires an increment, a sense lever detects the overflow, activating a carry finger that advances the adjacent higher-position star wheel by one unit while resetting the lower wheel; this process sequences through Geneva-driven cams to synchronize the transfer without manual intervention.^[9] The overall construction features a robust cast-iron or steel frame housing approximately 700 precisely machined parts, with brass used for pinwheels and bearings, mounted on a wooden or cast-iron base for stability, with input typically 9-10 digits and result registers 10-20 digits depending on model.^[8]^[2] Internal diagrams of the mechanism illustrate the pinwheel disk as a flat brass rotor with radial slots for pins, connected via a central shaft; engagement occurs as the disk meshes with a toothed counter wheel, where each pin tooth drives the wheel forward incrementally.^[9] Lever systems for operations are depicted as a sliding carriage assembly that positions the input rotor relative to the accumulator, with crank-driven gears linking the pinwheels to the registers via intermediate idlers for multiplication and division cycles.^[9] These components highlight the machine's compact, reliable engineering, enabling efficient mechanical computation.^[8]

User Operation and Features

Users interact with the Odhner Arithmometer primarily through a series of sliding levers on the setting board, which extend pins on the internal pinwheel rotors to input digits. To enter a number, such as 123, the operator positions the levers corresponding to each digit place—lever 3 to 1, lever 2 to 2, and lever 1 to 3—using the right forefinger for precise control.^[11] Clearing the input requires depressing a zero-setting device or button and turning the main crank a quarter turn clockwise to retract all pins.^[12] Basic operations rely on the crank handle, with clockwise turns performing addition and multiplication, while counterclockwise turns handle subtraction and division. For addition, the process begins by zeroing all registers, setting the first number on the levers (e.g., 123), and turning the crank once clockwise to transfer it to the result register; the levers are then cleared, the second number (e.g., 456) is set, and another clockwise turn yields the sum (579) in the result register.^[11] Subtraction follows a similar workflow: the minuend is entered and transferred with a clockwise turn, the subtrahend is set on the levers, and a counterclockwise turn subtracts it from the result register. Multiplication involves repeated additions by positioning the carriage (the movable register assembly) to the right for each digit place of the multiplier and performing the appropriate number of clockwise turns; division uses iterative subtractions with carriage shifts leftward, counting revolutions in the proof register until the remainder is minimized.^[12] Key features enhance usability, including a zeroing lever or small crank on the right side of the carriage for clearing the result register with one full turn, and similar mechanisms for the proof register on the left. Capacity indicators, such as a bell that rings on overflow or underflow, alert users to prevent errors beyond the machine's digit limits (typically 10-13 digits in the result register). Optional decimal markers allow manual placement of decimal points on the registers to align with the input's decimal structure, facilitating non-integer calculations.^[2]^[11] The device lacks dedicated memory registers beyond the basic accumulator (result register) and proof register, requiring users to note intermediate results manually for complex chains of operations. Error correction demands manual intervention, such as reverse crank turns to undo excess operations when the bell signals an issue.^[12] Early models of the Odhner Arithmometer featured no interlocks or automatic safeguards, potentially leading to mechanical jams if the crank was forced or the carriage moved during operation. Later variants incorporated basic pin guards and release levers to mitigate accidental back-transfers or pin misalignments, improving reliability during use.^[13]^[14]

Production and Variants

Russian Manufacturing

Production of the Odhner Arithmometer in Russia began in St. Petersburg, where Willgodt T. Odhner's workshop expanded into a dedicated factory following the grant of production rights in 1890.^[15] By 1917, the facility had manufactured approximately 23,000 units, including models such as the basic Type Ag with 8-digit capacity for essential arithmetic operations and the more advanced Type 2 offering 10 digits with full support for division.^[15]^[16] The factory's growth reflected increasing demand, with serial numbers reaching into the high 20,000s by the eve of the Revolution.^[17] The manufacturing process relied on skilled labor, employing over 150 workers by 1912, a figure that rose to 279 by early 1917.^[17] Assembly was largely manual, involving precise hand-fitting of the signature pinwheel mechanisms, followed by rigorous testing to ensure operational accuracy in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.^[17] This labor-intensive approach allowed for customization, such as varying digit capacities from 13 to 18 in higher-end models denoted as Types A, B, and C.^[2] The Russian Revolution of 1917 disrupted operations, with strikes and political upheaval leading to factory closure in July of that year; the Odhner family, including son Alexander, fled the country, while the machinery and assets were seized and nationalized by September 1918.^[17]^[18] Production halted entirely during the ensuing civil war, marking the end of private manufacturing under the Odhner name in Russia. In 1924, Soviet authorities relocated the equipment to Moscow, establishing a state-owned facility that resumed output under the "Felix" brand, named after Felix Dzerzhinsky, the founder of the secret police who oversaw early industrialization efforts.^[15]^[19] The Moscow plant, initially at Sushchevskaya Street, produced simplified versions of the Odhner design, featuring modifications like streamlined casings and crank handles in place of wing-nuts for easier register clearing.^[15]^[20] By 1968, annual production peaked at around 300,000 Felix units (including variants like the VK-1), contributing to a cumulative total of several million arithmometers manufactured through 1975, when mechanical production ceased in favor of electronic models.^[21]^[22]

International Licenses and Clones

In 1892, Willgodt Theophilus Odhner sold the production license for his improved pinwheel calculator design to the German firm Grimme, Natalis & Co. in Braunschweig, which rebranded the machines as Brunsviga and began manufacturing them shortly thereafter.^[3]^[2]^[23] This license covered Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium, acquired for 10,000 Deutsche Marks under the guidance of engineer Franz Trinks.^[24] Brunsviga production continued into the late 1960s, with the company eventually becoming part of Olympia Werke, yielding an estimated half a million units over nearly eight decades.^[23]^[25] Other European adaptations emerged in the early 20th century, including the Swedish Original-Odhner line resumed by Odhner's family after the 1917 Russian Revolution disrupted domestic operations. In 1918, Valentin Odhner founded Aktiebolaget Original-Odhner in Göteborg, initiating serial production around 1920 until 1928, with exact totals not well-documented but early output modest (some hundreds by late 1920), featuring models like the Arithmos series with 13-digit capacity.^[17] In France, the Thales company produced Odhner-inspired pinwheel calculators post-World War II, focusing on military applications such as gunnery and coordinate calculations, with models like the Thales A continuing the core design from its 1911 origins.^[26]^[10] Italian firms created unlicensed copies in the mid-20th century, while British variants appeared through local assembly or importation under brands adapting the pinwheel mechanism.^[27] The Odhner design spread globally through further licensing and imitation, influencing calculators in the United States, Japan, and the Eastern Bloc countries beyond the Soviet Union.^[8] By 1970, the total production of Odhner clones worldwide exceeded 5 million units, driven by these international efforts.^[28] Adaptations often incorporated design enhancements for broader utility; for instance, Brunsviga models expanded to 16-digit capacity and introduced electrically driven versions in the 1930s, along with features like automatic clearing.^[23] In Eastern Bloc variants, such as later Felix models, manufacturers integrated plastic components starting in the 1950s to reduce costs and weight while retaining the pinwheel core.^[29]

Legacy and Impact

Commercial Success and Successors

The Odhner Arithmometer achieved notable commercial success in Russia during its primary production period, with approximately 30,000 units manufactured in St. Petersburg from 1912 to 1917.^[17] Early production ramped up steadily, reaching 500 units by 1890–1891, 1,500 by 1895, and 5,000 by 1897, reflecting growing demand in business and institutional settings.^[3] Priced affordably at 75–100 rubles for standard 11- and 13-digit models in the late 19th century—equivalent to about a month's salary for skilled workers—the device appealed to a broad market, including financial institutions and engineering offices where it facilitated routine arithmetic tasks.^[3] By 1914, prices ranged from 200 to 495 rubles depending on model capacity, positioning it as a cost-effective alternative to earlier competitors like the Thomas Arithmometer, which had cost around 300 rubles in the late 19th century.^[17]^[3] International licensing expanded its reach significantly; for instance, the German Brunsviga models, based on Odhner's pinwheel design acquired in 1892, totaled around 500,000 units produced over nearly 80 years until the late 1960s.^[23] Globally, Odhner-derived machines numbered in the hundreds of thousands by the early 20th century, with Soviet production pushing totals into the millions through subsequent lines. These calculators found strong niches in banking for account reconciliation, engineering for design computations, and education for training in applied mathematics, offering reliable performance that outpaced manual methods.^[3] The original Odhner line evolved into more compact desk models through the 1930s, adapting to office needs with refined ergonomics while maintaining the core pinwheel mechanism.^[17] Its direct successor, the Soviet Felix series—introduced in 1928 as a nationalized continuation of Odhner's design—extended production until 1978, with several million units manufactured across over 20 variants in factories in Moscow, Kursk, and Penza.^[28] The Felix line and related models like the VK-1 peaked at about 300,000 units annually in 1968, serving widespread office use before electronic calculators rendered mechanical models obsolete in the 1970s.^[21] Economically, the Odhner Arithmometer and its derivatives played a key role in the pre-computer era by accelerating computations in offices, thereby reducing manual labor and enabling scalable data processing in growing bureaucracies and industries.^[3] In the Soviet Union, for example, insufficient domestic supply in the 1920s prompted imports worth 123,000 rubles, underscoring its integral place in economic planning and administration.^[17]

Influence on Later Calculators

The Odhner Arithmometer's pinwheel mechanism revolutionized mechanical calculation by providing a compact, reliable alternative to earlier designs like the Leibniz wheel, establishing it as the dominant technology for desktop calculators for over 50 years. This innovation influenced a wide array of subsequent machines, including those produced by major manufacturers such as Marchant, which began by importing and adapting pinwheel-based models in the early 1900s before developing their own simplified versions; Monroe, which incorporated pinwheel principles into its early 20th-century devices; and other firms building on the core architecture before transitioning to electromechanical systems. Millions of pinwheel calculators based on Odhner's design were manufactured globally across various brands, underscoring its foundational role in the industry.^[8]^[30]^[31] As mechanical calculators reached their peak in the mid-20th century, the principles of the Odhner mechanism were adapted into hybrid electro-mechanical devices during the 1960s, bridging the gap to fully electronic models. Companies like Monroe, building on pinwheel heritage, integrated electric motors and relays to automate operations while retaining core mechanical elements for input and accumulation, facilitating faster computation in office environments. This evolution contributed significantly to the desktop calculator's maturation, paving the way for transistor-based electronics that supplanted pure mechanical systems by the late 1960s.^[32]^[33] The Odhner Arithmometer marked a pivotal shift in computing history from cumbersome, limited devices like the stepped reckoner to practical, mass-producible office tools that democratized arithmetic operations. Its success highlighted the viability of scalable mechanical engineering for everyday business use, influencing the trajectory of computational tools until electronic alternatives emerged. Multiple examples of Odhner machines are preserved in institutions like the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History, where early prototypes from 1877 and later models serve as artifacts of this transition.^[34]^[35] In modern scholarship, the Odhner Arithmometer features prominently in texts on computing history, such as A History of Computing Technology by Michael R. Williams, which details its engineering advancements and widespread adoption. Replicas of the device are constructed by historians and educators to demonstrate the physical constraints of mechanical computing, emphasizing its role in illustrating the limits of pre-electronic arithmetic machinery.^[36]

References

[1]
Life and works of W. T. Odhner - Rechnerlexikon
In any way, Odhner seems to have been unaware of Baldwin's calculator because it was patented in February 1875 [17] when Odhner was already working on his ...
[2]
Original-Odhner - Jaap's Mechanical Calculators Page
History. Willgodt Theophil Odhner created his first working prototype pinwheel calculator in 1875. More machines were hand-built over the next few years, but ...Missing: invention | Show results with:invention
[3]
Willgodt Odhner - Computer Timeline
In October 1878 Odhner received the US patent №209416, although he had to change his initial patent application because some claims are found to be ...
[4]
October 29: Willgodt T. Odhner Was Granted a Patent for a ...
october 29, 1878 Willgodt T. Odhner Was Granted a Patent for a Calculating Machine That Performed Multiplications by Repeated Additions.Missing: US | Show results with:US
[5]
None
- **Birth Year and Place**: Willgodt Theophil Odhner born August 10, 1845, in Westby, Dalby parish, northern Wärmland province, Sweden.
[6]
1877 Odhner Arithmometers - the Smithsonian's treasures!
The two machines in the Smithsonian are most probably part of the prototype series of 14 calculators that went into production at the Nobel factory in 1877, and ...
[7]
Pinwheel Calculating Machines
Odhner Arithmometer. date made: 1877. maker: Odhner, W. T.. Description: This is one of the first calculating machines built on the design of ...
[8]
The Original-Odhner Pinwheel Calculator - Technical Description
Sep 19, 2017 · This page gives a brief technical description of the internal mechanism and principles of operation of the Original-Odhner pinwheel calculator.Missing: Arithmometer Geneva
[9]
http://www.johnwolff.id.au/calculators/Tech/OdhnerPinwheel/OdhnerPinwheel.htm
[10]
None
Summary of each segment:
[11]
[PDF] Multiply and Divide on an Original-Odhner
First of all clear all registers and make sure that the carriage is in normal position. two steps to the right and turning the handle once. tens transmission ...Missing: features safety
[12]
Original-Odhner - John Wolff's Web Museum
Sep 27, 2020 · W.T.Odhner's "Arithmometers" were built in St. Petersburg in Russia from 1874, and under licence in Germany (as the Brunsviga) from 1892. The ...
[13]
Odhner Arithmometer | Smithsonian Institution
**Summary of Odhner Arithmometer User Operation:**
[14]
[PDF] Before Computers: Mechanical Arithmetic
Their company produced about 23,000 calculators until 1917. During the Russian Revolution of 1917 the factory was na- tionalized. The Soviet Felix arithmometer.
[15]
Odhner's Arithmometer - Antique mechanical calculators
All of the machines have the pre-1917 Russian spelling ... Odhner's Arithmometer Ag. The next two machines are Odhner Ag machines, which have the added bell.Missing: models Type production<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
Production of Original-Odhner Arithmometers in Russia, Sweden ...
1911, US patent 996667, 4.7.1911) was in fact invented by Edvard Kuikka. Improvements in register clearing mechanism (Russian patent 17990, 30.9.1910, US patent ...
[17]
Felix - Jaap's Mechanical Calculators Page
History. Soon after the Russian revolution happened in 1917, the Odhner calculator factory in St Petersburg was taken over. It had been run by Alexander Odhner ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[18]
Pin-wheel Calculators - John Wolff's Web Museum
Dec 19, 2021 · The pin-wheel calculator was a simple and reliable machine, which was capable of all four arithmetic functions. Addition and subtraction were performed ...
[19]
"Iron Felix" meets the Odhner calculator
In 1924 he had set up a factory in Moscow to produce “arithmometers”. The ... Below we see the one area where the Soviet engineers implemented their own solution, ...
[20]
Felix-M
The arithmometer production peaked in 1968: a total of about 300,000 Felix and VK-1 calculators were manufactured that year. At the end of the arithmometer ...Missing: units | Show results with:units
[21]
Yandex Museum in Saint Petersburg
While in production, several million units were manufactured. A notable predecessor to the Felix is the Odhner Arithmometer, which was commercially manufactured ...
[22]
Brunsviga Calculators - John Wolff's Web Museum
Jul 17, 2017 · In 1892 engineer Franz Trinks was instrumental in securing the German manufacturing rights for the Odhner pinwheel calculators. The first ...Missing: Arithmometer international licenses
[23]
http://www.johnwolff.id.au/calculators/Brunsviga/Brunsviga.htm
[24]
Brunsviga - Vintage Calculators
The company improved and developed the Brunsviga which became one of the most successful mechanical calculators and was produced up to the early 1970s.
[25]
Thales - Jaap's Mechanical Calculators Page
This is the Thales model A. It is a small calculator using a standard Odhner pinwheel design. It was first made in 1911.
[26]
Jaap's Mechanical Calculators Page
It is a pinwheel calculator from the late 1950s, which uses a 10-key keypad for input. It has serial number 053909. Versions of this machine were made in Italy ...Missing: Bloc | Show results with:Bloc
[27]
The Uncalculated History of Mechanical Calculators. | Nota Bene
Oct 5, 2016 · For forty years, from 1851 to 1890, the arithmometer was the only type of mechanical calculator in commercial production and it was sold all ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[28]
Felix Arithmometer - CHM Revolution - Computer History Museum
This device is based on the original 1873 Odhner “pinwheel” design. Odhner was a Swedish immigrant who lived in Russia. The “Felix” name of this model ...
[29]
The Marchant Calculating Machine Company
Dec 6, 2021 · The Marchant brothers started their calculator business in the early 1900s by importing and reselling the French "Dactyle" pinwheel machines.
[30]
[PDF] Rise & Fall of the Mechanical Calculator - TU Delft OpenCourseWare
Monroe Calculator (first model, 1908). Page 51. Leibniz Wheel Machines ... Marchant calculators: simplified pinwheel mechanism input via slides or key ...Missing: influence | Show results with:influence
[31]
Calculating Machines | National Museum of American History
A few companies that sold calculating machines, such as Remington Rand, Monroe, Friden, and SCM Marchant, also influenced the early development of electronic ...
[32]
Old Calculator Museum Calculator Timeline
Odhner Arithmometer invented in Russia by W.T. Odhner, using Odhner's pinwheel mechanism ... million units shy of total US electronic calculator production. 1975 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
Odhner Arithmometer | National Museum of American History
This is one of the first calculating machines built on the design of Willgodt T. Odhner (1845–1905), a Swedish engineer working in St. Petersburg, Russia.
[34]
Odhner Arithmometer | Smithsonian Institution
This is an example of an Odhner arithmometer from the 1890s. The machine has a brass frame, painted black, with eight metal pinwheels and a wooden base. Numbers ...Missing: patents 1878 1879
[35]
A History of Computing Technology, 2nd Edition - Wiley
Free delivery 30-day returnsA History of Computing Technology highlights the major advances in arithmetic from the beginning of counting, through the three most important developments in ...
[36]
https://www.wiley.com/en-us/A%2BHistory%2Bof%2BComputing%2BTechnology%2C%2B2nd%2BEdition-p-9780818677397