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Parī

In Persian mythology and folklore, the Parī (also spelled peri or pairi) are supernatural beings typically depicted as beautiful, ethereal women with wings, embodying elements of enchantment, beauty, and otherworldly allure.^[1] Originating from the Avestan term pairikā, which denotes a class of female demonic entities created by Ahriman, the adversary of Ahura Mazda, these figures were initially portrayed as malevolent sorceresses or witches who tempted and harmed humans through seduction and shape-shifting.^[2] Over time, the Parī evolved in post-Avestan Iranian traditions, often portrayed as fallen angels denied entry to paradise and seeking redemption, transitioning from purely demonic adversaries to more ambivalent or even benevolent fairies associated with fertility, water, nature, and agricultural prosperity. In Zoroastrian texts like the Bundahišn, they are linked to rituals such as the jašn ceremony, suggesting pre-Zoroastrian roots as fertility deities that persisted despite official opposition.^[2] By the medieval period, Parī appear in Persian literature, including epic poetry like the Šāhnāme (Book of Kings), where they often serve as helpers to heroes or symbols of unattainable beauty, capable of both aiding and beguiling mortals. In broader Islamic and Central Asian folklore, the Parī have become iconic fairy-like creatures known for their wit, magical powers, and connections to distant realms, influencing tales of romance, adventure, and moral trials. Their enduring cultural significance is evident in modern Iran, where Parī remains a popular female given name symbolizing supernatural beauty and grace.^[2]

Etymology and Linguistic Evolution

Avestan and Middle Persian Roots

The term parī derives from the Avestan pairikā, a feminine noun in non-Gathic Younger Avestan denoting a class of female demonic beings or sorceresses, created by Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the principle of evil and destruction in Zoroastrian cosmology. These entities are frequently portrayed as agents of seduction and witchcraft, employing illusions and enchantments to lead astray heroes, priests, or divine yazatas (beneficent immortals).^[3]^[2] Pairikās appear prominently in the Avestan Yashts, the hymns dedicated to individual divinities, where they function as antagonists disrupting cosmic order or human piety. In the Abān Yašt (Yasht 5), dedicated to the waters and the goddess Ardvi Sura Anahita, pairikās are listed among the oppressors and evil forces to be crushed by the righteous. Similar roles are evident in other Yashts, such as the Tištrya Yašt (Yasht 8), where pairikās embody chaotic forces akin to shooting stars that the rain-bringing yazata Tištrya must overcome.^[3]^[4]^[2] In Middle Persian (Pahlavi) literature, the term evolves to parīg, preserving its demonic essence within Zoroastrian demonology. The Bundahishn, a key cosmological text, enumerates parīg among the evil spirits (dēwān) and witches (jādūgān) spawned by Ahriman, categorizing them as harmful female entities that propagate mischief and impurity in the material world. This continuity underscores their status as archetypal female adversaries in pre-Islamic Iranian theology. Some scholarly interpretations suggest possible pre-Zoroastrian roots as fertility deities associated with water and nature, which may have contributed to later semantic shifts.^[3]^[2] The phonetic development from Avestan pairikā to Middle Persian parīg involves typical Iranian sound changes, such as the simplification of intervocalic r and vowel shifts, while semantically, scholarly consensus emphasizes the overriding demonic and seductive attributes.^[3]

Modern Usage and Translations

In New Persian (Farsi), the term parī underwent a significant semantic shift following the Islamic conquest, evolving from its earlier connotations of malevolent sprites in Middle Persian to denote beautiful, winged spirits associated with benevolence and ethereal grace. This transformation appears in post-Islamic Persian literature, including historiographical and epic texts from the 9th-10th centuries onward.^[5] The word was borrowed into Arabic as perī, integrating into Islamic folklore while retaining its core imagery of fairy-like entities. This borrowing influenced Ottoman Turkish (peri), where it similarly evokes benevolent, winged beings akin to fairies, and Urdu (parī), in which it denotes graceful, otherworldly figures often symbolizing beauty and whimsy in South Asian literature.^[6] The potential link between Persian parī and English "fairy" remains disputed among linguists, with some 19th-century philologists like Max Müller proposing indirect connections through Old French fée (derived from Latin fata, meaning "fates") and possible Persian-Arabic intermediaries via medieval trade and translations. However, modern scholarship, including the Oxford English Dictionary, rejects any direct etymological tie due to insufficient historical evidence, attributing phonetic similarities to coincidence rather than borrowing.^[7] In contemporary Iranian languages, parī is frequently used metaphorically to describe women of exceptional beauty or ethereal qualities, as in compounds like parī-rūy ("fairy-faced"), which appear in modern poetry and prose to evoke ideal feminine allure. Among Iranian diaspora communities, the term persists in literature to symbolize cultural nostalgia and hybrid identities, often blending traditional motifs with themes of displacement and resilience in works by authors like Firoozeh Dumas.^[8]

Mythological and Religious Origins

In Zoroastrian Tradition

In Zoroastrian cosmology, pairikās represent a class of female demons integral to the dualistic conflict between Ahura Mazda, the supreme creator of order, and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the destructive spirit who introduces chaos.^[3] These beings embody temptation and deception, serving as agents of moral and cosmic corruption in the ongoing struggle against divine harmony.^[9] Pairikās are depicted as creations of Angra Mainyu, functioning as female counterparts to the male daevas, the broader category of adversarial spirits. Angra Mainyu fashions them to counter Ahura Mazda's benevolent creations, infusing the world with disorder through their seductive and illusory powers that lure humans toward falsehood and sin.^[10] In the Avestan language, the term "pairikā" derives from roots denoting sorcery or enchantment, underscoring their role in subverting righteousness.^[3] Key narratives in the Avesta highlight pairikās allying with other malevolent forces to oppose Zoroaster's reforms and the establishment of the good religion. In the Vendidad (Fargard 1), the pairikā Knāthaiti is counter-created by Angra Mainyu in the land of Vaekereta (modern Kabul), where she clings to the hero Kərəsāspa, promoting daeva-worship and idolatry as a plague on humanity; she is prophesied to be vanquished only by the future savior Saoshyant.^[11] Pairikās also collaborate with yatus (sorcerers) and dragons, attempting to thwart Zoroaster by casting spells and illusions during his prophetic mission, as referenced in Yasht 19 and Vendidad 20. These stories portray them as relentless adversaries who infiltrate sacred spaces to undermine ritual purity and ethical conduct.^[10] Their attributes emphasize supernatural malice, including shape-shifting into alluring forms to seduce and deceive, illusion-casting to obscure truth, and direct association with ritual pollution. In Avestan texts, pairikās manifest as enchantresses who bewitch warriors and priests, often in tandem with druj (the lie or chaos principle).^[3] Pahlavi literature, such as the Bundahishn and Denkard, extends this to links with menstrual taboos, viewing them as demons who introduce bodily impurities that symbolize broader cosmic defilement and fertility disruption, requiring elaborate purification rites to counteract.^[12] In post-Achaemenid and Sassanian-era lore, pairikās persist as enduring threats subdued but not eradicated by heroic figures, reflecting the incomplete nature of good's triumph until the final renovation of the world. Texts like the Pahlavi Rivayats describe heroes such as Kərəsāspa temporarily overpowering pairikās and their allies, yet these demons recurrently revive to challenge the faithful, symbolizing the perpetual vigilance required in Zoroastrian ethics. This motif underscores their role in Sassanian cosmology as emblems of unyielding opposition, tamed through ritual and heroism but awaiting ultimate defeat at Frashokereti.^[3]

In Islamic Cosmology

In Persian-influenced Islamic folklore, parīs are depicted as a class of supernatural beings, often akin to benevolent jinn created from fire, who inhabit hidden realms such as mountains and possess moral agency within a monotheistic framework. These figures blend pre-Islamic Persian mythological elements with Islamic lore and appear in medieval prophetic narratives, such as those in al-Thaʿlabī's Qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ (d. 1035 CE), where they interact with prophets and represent ethereal aspects of creation subordinate to divine will.^[13] Theological interpretations of parīs exhibit ambiguity, positioning them as intermediaries in the cosmic hierarchy between pure angels and malevolent demons. Later Ismaili thought integrates parīs into monotheistic cosmology, emphasizing their susceptibility to temptation yet potential for alignment with divine guidance, in contrast to the immutable obedience of angels.^[14] Parīs do not appear explicitly in the Quran or authentic Hadith, but later scholars link them interpretively to the "hidden peoples" referenced in Surah Al-Jinn (72:1–15), portraying them as a benevolent subset of jinn who can embrace Islam and participate in prophetic narratives. Such connections underscore their role in expanding Quranic cosmology to encompass diverse unseen beings accountable to God. In Persianate Islamic traditions, particularly during the Safavid era (1501–1722 CE) in Iran, parīs gained prominence in Sufi allegories as symbols of divine beauty, ethereal longing, and the temptations of the soul's journey toward union with the divine.^[15] These depictions, influenced by mystical poetry and esoteric thought, highlight parīs as emblems of the soul's redemptive ascent, bridging pre-Islamic Persian motifs with Shiʿi-inflected Sufism.^[16]

Literary Depictions

In Epic Poetry

In Ferdowsi's Shahnameh (10th century), parīs appear as both allies and temptresses, often embodying supernatural beauty and aiding heroes in pivotal moments. In the tale of Zal and Rudabeh, Rudabeh is depicted as "peri-faced," her ethereal allure drawing Zal into a forbidden romance that unites rival lineages, while providing narrative tension through her enchanting presence.^[3] Parīs also serve as allies in battles against divs (demons), joining the forces of Kayumars and Hushang to rout Ahriman's hordes, symbolizing divine support against chaos.^[17] Similarly, the divinity Sorush manifests as a peri to warn Kayumars of impending threats, underscoring their role as messengers bridging mortal and divine realms.^[3] This symbolic layering influenced later epics, such as Nizami Ganjavi's Haft Peykar (12th century), where parī-like figures manifest in the ethereal qualities of the seven princesses, particularly Naz-Pari, whose graceful, fairy-esque beauty embodies idealized romance and cosmic harmony.^[18] These princesses, housed in domed pavilions, parallel peri motifs by serving as enchanting guides who impart wisdom through tales, reinforcing the peri's role as a bridge to transcendent love and moral insight in Persian epic tradition.^[3]

In Folk Tales and Romances

In Persianate folk tales and romances, parīs frequently appear as enchanting yet otherworldly figures who facilitate magical journeys or romantic entanglements. A prominent example is found in the collection One Thousand and One Nights, particularly in "The Story of Prince Ahmed and the Fairy Paribanou," where Paribanou, a parī princess exiled from her realm, becomes the prince's lover and aids him in outwitting rival suitors and malevolent jinn through her supernatural powers, ultimately securing their union.^[19] This narrative portrays parīs as transporters across realms, using their ethereal abilities to bridge human and supernatural worlds, often in service of love or adventure.^[3] In dāstān, the prose romantic epics of the Persian tradition, parīs embody ideals of unattainable beauty and intervene to support forbidden or star-crossed loves. Adaptations of the Layla and Majnun tale, circulated in manuscript form during the medieval period, symbolically compare Layla to a peri, representing divine beauty that inspires the lovers' transcendent passion amid human obstacles.^[20] These portrayals draw briefly from precedents in epic poetry but emphasize prose-driven plots where parīs' interventions highlight the tension between mortal desire and celestial purity.^[21] Central to many such tales are moral themes of redemption, where parīs, often depicted as fallen spirits denied paradise for past transgressions, seek atonement by aiding humans—such as through trials of loyalty or marriage to mortals—which mirror Sufi concepts of spiritual purification and return to the divine. In stories like those embedded in dāstān cycles, a parī might endure earthly hardships or perform virtuous acts to regain her wings and heavenly status, underscoring narratives of grace and ethical transformation.^[2] In later Persianate traditions, parī figures incorporate regional influences, creating hybrid motifs in multicultural romance cycles while preserving core elements of exile and reconciliation.

Folklore and Cultural Role

Physical and Supernatural Attributes

In Persianate folklore, parīs are depicted as exquisitely beautiful beings renowned for their celestial allure, often described with luminous skin and long flowing hair. They are frequently portrayed adorned in flowing silks, evoking an ethereal elegance that blends human-like femininity with otherworldly grace. These attributes underscore their role as enchanting figures dwelling in secluded natural realms, such as hidden gardens or remote mountains, where they maintain a harmonious existence away from human realms.^[22] Parīs possess a range of supernatural abilities rooted in their mythical heritage, including shape-shifting into forms like birds or mists for evasion or travel, drawing from ancient associations with fertility and sorcery. However, these powers have limitations; parīs are vulnerable to religious incantations that dispel their influence or force submission.^[22]^[2]^[23] The dual nature of parīs reflects a complex moral ambiguity in folklore, where they are generally benevolent guardians of nature and prosperity but capable of mischief, such as beguiling wanderers with false visions to divert them from their paths. This ambivalence ties to their origins as beings created by the evil spirit Ahriman.^[22]^[2] Parīs inhabit organized communities referred to as parīzād, or fairy-born enclaves, structured with hierarchies often led by powerful queens who oversee their ethereal societies. These groups thrive in verdant, isolated domains like underground gardens or mist-shrouded peaks.^[22]

Human-Perī Interactions

In Persian folklore, parīs frequently interact with humans through romantic abductions, kidnapping handsome young men to their ethereal realms driven by love. These encounters often involve the mortals being taken to Parīstān, the parīs' hidden world, where they may be enchanted and forget their human lives unless they complete challenging tasks to return. Such abductions are documented in regional traditions influenced by Persian mythology, including variants in South Asian highland folklore where fairy-like beings, akin to parīs, target attractive youths for similar purposes.^[24] Parīs also establish beneficial alliances with humans, offering aid to heroes through gifts of treasures, prophetic warnings, or guidance. In Central Asian folklore variants, particularly among Turkic groups, parīs assist nomads and warriors by revealing hidden dangers or providing crucial advice, as exemplified in the Oghuz epic tradition where a peri warns a shepherd of a grave threat to his people, averting disaster for the community. Their supernatural abilities facilitate these interventions, allowing parīs to traverse vast distances swiftly.^[25] Human-parī interactions are governed by strict taboos, particularly regarding marriages, which are prohibited without elaborate rituals to bind the realms or protect against supernatural repercussions. Offspring from such unions, known as parīzād, typically possess heroic qualities but bear curses or extraordinary destinies, such as the legendary Queen of Sheba (Belqīs), said to be the child of a human emperor and a parī in Persian folklore traditions.^[23] These narratives function as cultural cautions, emphasizing the perils of succumbing to parī temptations, which can lead to enchantment, memory loss, or irreversible separation from human society.

Representations in Art and Modern Culture

Traditional Visual Arts

In Persian miniatures of the 13th to 16th centuries, parīs appear as delicate, winged female figures, often portrayed in lush garden settings that evoke paradisiacal realms, with gold leaf applied to impart an ethereal luminescence to their forms. These depictions draw from folklore attributes of parīs as supernatural beings of beauty and mischief. A notable example is found in 16th-century Shiraz school miniatures from the Khamsa of Jami, where winged parīs observe mystical events like the bathing of Ilyas and al-Khizr at the Fountain of Life, positioned discreetly beyond hills amid cypress trees and flowing streams to heighten the scene's otherworldly atmosphere.^[26] Under Ottoman and Mughal influences, parīs were integrated into album leaves and architectural tilework, frequently blended with houris in dynamic poses of dancing or flight amid floral motifs, reflecting Safavid aesthetics of refined elegance and symmetry. In Ottoman albums, such as the 16th-century muraqqa in the Topkapı Palace Library, artist Veli Can rendered a seated parī with flowing robes and subtle wings, emphasizing graceful repose against a neutral background to highlight her mystical allure.^[27] Mughal and Deccani variants extended this tradition, portraying parīs in opulent scenes with intricate patterns of flowers and jewels, as seen in album leaves where they ride composite creatures or hold symbolic objects, adapting Persian prototypes to local courtly tastes while maintaining the emphasis on harmonious composition and vibrant pigmentation. Symbolic elements in these traditions underscore parīs' dual nature of allure and divinity, with wings stylized to evoke feathers—sometimes reminiscent of peacocks for their iridescent beauty—symbolizing transcendence and grace, though rarely overt in sexuality due to Islamic norms of modesty that favor veiled or draped attire over explicit sensuality. Gold leaf and jewel-like colors further denote their celestial status, avoiding direct eroticism in favor of poetic idealization. Regional variations appear in Indian Rajput paintings, where parīs are adapted with local flora like lotuses and peacocks integrated into garden backdrops, as in a 19th-century Bhopal example depicting a parī cradling a fantastical animal amid verdant, indigenous landscapes that infuse Persian motifs with Hindu symbolic layers.^[28]

Western and Contemporary Adaptations

In the 19th-century Romantic era, the peri entered Western literature through Irish poet Thomas Moore's narrative poem Lalla Rookh (1817), particularly in the section "Paradise and the Peri," where a peri, exiled from heaven as a descendant of fallen angels, seeks readmission by presenting the most precious gift to God—ultimately succeeding with a sinner's tear of repentance. This portrayal romanticized the peri as an ethereal, redemptive figure, blending Persian folklore with Orientalist themes popular in European poetry of the time.^[29] The poem inspired further adaptations in Western classical music, most notably Robert Schumann's secular oratorio Das Paradies und die Peri, Op. 50 (1843), which dramatizes the peri's quest through solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, emphasizing themes of exile, sacrifice, and divine mercy drawn directly from Moore's text.^[29] Premiered in Leipzig, the work marked a significant crossover of Persian mythological elements into German Romantic composition, influencing later choral traditions. In contemporary fantasy literature, the peri appear in urban fantasy settings that reimagine global mythologies. Seanan McGuire's October Daye series (2009–present) integrates peri as a reclusive race of land fae dwelling in high deserts, portrayed as isolated and sometimes monstrous within the broader faerie hierarchy, as explored in the short story "Such Dangerous Seas" (2022).^[30] This adaptation updates the peri's traditional benevolence and beauty into a more nuanced, otherworldly isolation amid modern supernatural conflicts. Another modern example is Corey Flintoff's short story "The Queen of the Peri Takes Her Time" (2018), published in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, which fuses peri lore with contemporary intrigue involving a race car driver and the peri queen, blending ancient seduction and magic with 21st-century settings.^[31] Such works highlight the peri's enduring appeal in speculative fiction, often emphasizing their fairy-like allure and moral ambiguity in hybrid cultural narratives.^[32]

References

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Rehabilitating the Pairikās: Fairies in Iranian mythology
### Summary of Pairikās in Iranian Mythology
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PAIRIKĀ - Encyclopaedia Iranica
PAIRIKĀ, feminine, non-Gathic Avestan noun denoting a class of female demonic beings in the Avesta and often translated “sorceress, witch, or enchantress.
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KHORDA AVESTA (English): Aban Yasht ('Hymn to the Waters')
... Pairikas, of the oppressors, of the blind and of the deaf. 'For her brightness and glory, I will offer her a sacrifice .... IV. 14. 'Offer up a sacrifice, O ...
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https://www.avesta.org/ka/yt5sbe.htm
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Yet in New Persian, it shifts dramatically to connote beautiful, benevolent spirits ... parī-rūy, “fairy-faced,” indicates superlative beauty.xxix By the early ...Missing: 9th | Show results with:9th
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Idle thoughts upon the Ides of March: the feathered man
Mar 11, 2023 · The Persian word پَری parī comes from Middle Persian parīg, itself from Old Persian *parikā-. In Persian language, the word 'Par', means Wing.
[7]
[PDF] Dissertation Stefanie Giebert
Mythological-linguistic view: This view is connected with the name of Max Müller ... yet, the OED insists that peri has no etymological connection with fairy, ...
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[PDF] Anāhitā - Refubium - Freie Universität Berlin
Just as in the Abān Yašt (Yt 5.96), she descends from the heights of the mountain as a waterfall, as high as a thousand men: (GBd IX.9.7). Hugar ī buland ān ...
[9]
[PDF] AVESTA: VENDIDAD (English): Fargard 1.
532 A female demon, the modern Parī [fairy -JHP], often associated with Yatu, 'the ... Sources; New York, 1894. 623 'Going from the helm to the cuirass ...Missing: shift 9th 10th
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James Darmesteter. 4. The Origin of the Avesta Religion
Then we see the Pairika, under the name of Knãthaiti, cleave to Keresâspa 61. Keresâspa, like Thraêtaona, is a great smiter of demons, who killed the snake ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
VENDIDAD (English): Fargard 1. - AVESTA
The Pairika, in Zoroastrian mythology, symbolises idolatry (uzdes-parastih). The land of Kubul, till the Moslem invasion, belonged to the Indian ...
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[PDF] Bulletin of the Asia Institute
of pairikā, see the article Pairikā in Encyclopæ- dia Iranica (Adhami 2010), which also has useful data on pairikā/parīg in Iranian literature; cf. also.Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
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1, 23. 27. The philosopher Nasir Khusraw, who devotes a chapter to fairies in his. Jilmic al-hikmatain, equates fairies to angels. In his view, there are two ...
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Nov 26, 2019 · The conventional view is that Sufism was either incorporated into or persecuted by the Safavids, leading to its decline, which is challenged in ...
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Art, Allegory and the Rise of Shi'ism in Iran, 1487-1565 - jstor
The doctrinal affinities between Sufism and Shiism, and the heterogeneity of Safavid ideological pretensions facilitated the continued use of the allusive, ...Missing: Peri | Show results with:Peri
[17]
[PDF] Shahnameh.pdf
Then the Peri-faced answered him, saying, "I am Tahmineh, the daughter of the King of. Samengan, of the race of the leopard and the lion, and none of the ...
[18]
Magic in Classical Persian Amatory Literature | Iranian Studies
Jan 1, 2022 · Gurgani's nurse is also a sorceress to which there are many references: “As Ramin's eye fell on the sorceress, his eyes were sure / that a ...
[19]
HAFT PEYKAR - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Dec 15, 2002 · HAFT PEYKAR, a famous romantic epic by Nezami of Ganja (Neẓāmi Ganjavi) from the last decade of the 6th/12th century.
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Ahmed and Paribanou - Wikipedia
Ahmed and Paribanou, or The Story of Prince Ahmed and the fairy Pari Banou, is one of the tales of the Arabian Nights compilation.
[21]
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Persian Popular Literature explores the historical evolution and academic interest in Persian folklore, tracing its roots back to the Safavid period.
[22]
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Parda-dārī is a form of illustrated storytelling in which the narrator or two narrators working as a team recite stories, usually about important early Shiʿite ...
[23]
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Following an introduction into the meaning of popular literature in the Persian context, this essay presents and discusses a unique document: a catalogue of ...
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Fairytales, as part of folk tales, are always fascinating for both kids and adults because of their supernatural creatures and promising massage of hope and ...Missing: parī Persianate scholarly
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Fairy lore in the high mountains of South Asia and the hymn of the Garhwali fairy 'Daughter of the Hills'1. Authors. Ram Prasad Bhatt; Heinz Werner Wessler ...
[26]
The Dede Korkut Ethic - jstor
The warning of the peri indicates that the lapse of propriety on the part of the shepherd will have devastating consequences for all the Oghuz. Time passes, the ...
[27]
None
Nothing is retrieved...<|control11|><|separator|>
[28]
https://www.jaco-sj.com/article_142661.html?lang=en
[29]
[PDF] Shiraz painting in the sixteenth century
Persian miniature painting, including a critical and descriptive catalogue of the miniatures ex- hibited at Burlington Blouse, January-March, 1931 ...
[30]
File:Pari holding a unique animal. 19th cent. Rajput style Bhopal ...
Jan 24, 2012 · Composite miniature painting. Usage on fr.wikipedia.org. Péri (mythologie) · Peinture rajput. Metadata. This file contains additional ...
[31]
Das Paradies und die Peri, Op. 50 (Part One, Part Two ... - LA Phil
The Peri, in Persian mythology the offspring of a fallen angel and a mortal, is barred from Eden because of the sin of her parentage.
[32]
The October Daye Books - Seanan McGuire
The first eighteen books in the series are available now: Rosemary and Rue; A Local Habitation; An Artificial Night; Late Eclipses; One Salt Sea; Ashes of Honor ...
[33]
Fantasy and Science Fiction: July/August 2018 Table of Contents
The Queen of the Peri Takes Her Time, –, Corey Flintoff. The Adjunct, –, Cassandra Rose Clarke. Bedtime Story, –, James Sallis. Morbier, –, R.S. Benedict.
[34]
http://www.rocketstackrank.com/2018/07/The-Queen-of-the-Peri-Takes-Her-Corey-Flintoff.html