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Queen of Sheba

The Queen of Sheba is a figure from ancient biblical tradition, depicted as the monarch of the prosperous kingdom of Saba in southern Arabia (modern Yemen) who undertook a renowned visit to King Solomon of Israel circa the 10th century BCE to verify reports of his exceptional wisdom. In the primary accounts preserved in 1 Kings 10:1–13 and 2 Chronicles 9:1–12, she arrived in Jerusalem with a vast caravan laden with spices, gold, and precious stones, posing riddles and questions that Solomon answered adeptly, while his opulent court and divine favor astonished her, prompting lavish gifts in exchange and praise for Yahweh's endowment of Israel's king. Although no contemporaneous inscriptions or artifacts directly attest to her personal existence or the specific journey, the kingdom of Saba is archaeologically confirmed as a major hub of incense, spice, and luxury trade across the Red Sea and Arabian routes during the early first millennium BCE, with Neo-Assyrian annals referencing Sabean queens and commerce that plausibly underpin the narrative's historical kernel. Subsequent traditions amplify her legend: Ethiopian lore in the Kebra Nagast portrays her as Makeda, consort to who bore son , founder of the , though this reflects medieval Aksumite imperial ideology rather than empirical antiquity; Islamic sources identify her as Bilqis, a discerning ruler humbled by 's prophetic ring and a bird's report in the ( 27). These elaborations, while culturally enduring, diverge from the terse biblical core, with scholarly analysis favoring Saba's Yemeni locus over Ethiopian claims due to epigraphic and material evidence of Sabean mukarribs (priest-kings) and trade dominance predating Aksumite influence. The absence of her name or regnal details in Hebrew texts underscores her role as emblematic of exotic wisdom-seekers and intercultural exchange, rather than a fully historicized biography.

Primary Sources

Biblical Account

The Biblical account of the appears in the Hebrew Bible's and Chronicles, specifically 1 Kings 10:1–13 and its near-parallel in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12. These passages describe an unnamed ruler from who travels to during the reign of King to assess reports of his , which was renowned in connection with the name of the . The two accounts are substantially identical, with Chronicles featuring minor stylistic variations, such as additional emphasis on and courtly ascent offerings, but no substantive divergences in the core narrative. Upon hearing of Solomon's fame, the queen arrives in accompanied by a vast , including camels bearing spices, an immense quantity of , and precious stones unprecedented in . Her primary purpose is to pose "hard questions" or riddles to test the king, which he answers without error, leaving nothing concealed from him. Impressed beyond the rumors she had heard, she beholds the evidence of his in the grandeur of his , the lavish daily provisions for his table, the orderly seating and attire of his officials, the attendance of his cupbearers, and the ascending burnt offerings in the House of the Lord. The acknowledges that the reality surpasses prior reports, declaring Solomon's and greater than proclaimed. She blesses the for delighting in to set such a wise king over a people who continually experience divine instruction through him, deeming Solomon's servants supremely blessed. In exchange for the insights gained, she presents Solomon with 120 talents of , abundant spices, and rare precious stones. Solomon reciprocates by granting her every request, beyond the customary royal generosity, after which she departs with her servants to her homeland. The underscores Solomon's unparalleled as a divine , validated by a foreign monarch's rigorous .

Quranic Account

In the Quran, the story of the Queen of Sheba appears in Surah An-Naml (The Ant), verses 15–44, as part of the narrative highlighting Prophet 's (Solomon's) prophethood, wisdom, and dominion over natural and supernatural forces. , granted unique knowledge and control by , inspects his army of birds and notices the absence of the (hudhud), vowing to punish it severely unless it brings valid justification. The soon returns, reporting its discovery of a prosperous kingdom in the land of (Saba'), ruled by a woman of great authority who possesses a magnificent and leads her people in sun worship, forsaking the worship of . Sulayman dispatches a letter via the to the queen, commanding her and her people to submit to , the Lord of the worlds, without associating partners with Him. The queen, consulting her advisors who boast of their military strength, decides to send lavish gifts to Sulayman as a test of his intentions. Upon receiving the gifts, Sulayman rejects them emphatically, warning that he will soon dispatch an irresistible force against her unless she submits, emphasizing that worldly wealth cannot rival divine favor. To demonstrate his power, Sulayman orders a () to fetch her throne before her arrival, which is accomplished swiftly and then disguised to test her. When arrives at 's court, she is invited to enter a floored with smooth appearing as flowing , leading her to lift her garments in caution before realizing the . Astonished by the display and recognizing Sulayman's divine signs, she acknowledges her past errors in sun worship and declares her submission to alongside Sulayman, affirming Allah as the Lord of all worlds. The account portrays her as a of , triggered by of Sulayman's miracles, without elaboration on romance or further personal details found in later traditions.

Legendary Expansions

Ethiopian Kebra Nagast Tradition

The , or "Glory of the Kings," is a medieval Ethiopian text composed in Ge'ez around the , drawing on earlier , , and Jewish traditions to elaborate the biblical encounter between the and . It portrays the queen, named Makeda in this account, as ruler of (referred to as "the country of the ") who travels to after hearing of Solomon's wisdom from a named Tamrin, seeking knowledge and divine truth. In the narrative, Makeda spends six months at Solomon's court, where he hosts elaborate feasts and engages her in riddles and debates on ; she ultimately submits to his after a involving a spicy meal that tests her chastity, leading to conception of their son, Bayna-Lekem (later known as ). Menelik, raised in , journeys to at age 22, where Solomon acknowledges paternity and offers him succession, but Menelik declines, preferring his Ethiopian heritage; divine visions prompt Menelik's nobles—sons of Israelite priests and elders—to abscond with the , substituting a to avert detection, and transport it to via and the . The Ark's arrival sanctifies Axum as the "New ," with its resting place guarded in a , inaccessible to all but a single priest. This tradition served to legitimize the , restored in 1270 by , who claimed descent from as Solomon's heir, intertwining Ethiopian monarchy with biblical to assert imperial authority over and Cushitic subjects until Emperor Haile Selassie's deposition in 1974. The text's compilation reflects Zagwe-to-Solomonic political transitions, incorporating apocalyptic motifs and anti-Zagwe propaganda, though its legendary elements lack corroboration from contemporary Near Eastern records.

Islamic Elaborations on Bilqis

In Islamic tradition, the unnamed queen of the Quranic account is identified as Bilqis in exegetical literature and prophetic narratives, with her kingdom associated with Saba' in southern Arabia. This nomenclature appears in tafsirs such as those by and , though its etymological origins remain debated among scholars, potentially deriving from pre-Islamic or foreign linguistic adaptations without direct Quranic attestation. Exegetes elaborate on the Quranic narrative in Surah an-Naml (27:20-44) by detailing Bilqis's consultative governance and intellectual acumen. Upon receiving Solomon's letter demanding submission to God, she convenes her advisors, who advocate military response, but she opts for diplomacy, dispatching lavish gifts of gold and jewels to test his intentions. Solomon rejects the tribute, attributing it to her sun worship, and commands the transportation of her throne—described in some tafsirs as crafted from gold, jewels, and rare woods—via the knowledgeable jinn Asif ibn Barkhiya rather than the ifrit who proposed a slower feat. Further embellishments in works like Ibn Kathir's portray Bilqis arriving at 's court amid displays of divine favor, including control over winds and birds, which underscore his prophethood. The pivotal glass-floored palace, simulating a pool of water, prompts her to lift her skirts, revealing her shins and affirming the illusion; this leads to her immediate recognition of monotheism's truth, declaring, "My Lord, indeed, I have wronged myself, and I submit with Solomon to , Lord of the worlds" ( 27:44). Post-Quranic folklore, including some Shi'a hadiths, introduces supernatural elements, such as claims of Bilqis's partial jinn heritage from her mother, explaining her aversion to the watery floor to conceal unusual features like hairy legs—a motif absent from the Quran but echoed in rabbinical parallels. These additions, while vivid, stem from anecdotal traditions rather than prophetic hadith chains of highest authenticity, serving didactic purposes on wisdom and submission over polytheism. Bilqis's story is often invoked as an exemplar of rational inquiry yielding faith, contrasting with hadiths critiquing female rulership post-Islam, as her era predates such norms.

Religious Significance

In Judaism

In Jewish scripture, the is depicted in the as a ruler from who visits in to test his renowned with difficult riddles, arriving with a large caravan bearing spices, gold, and precious stones. According to 1 Kings 10:1-13, answers all her questions satisfactorily, conducts her through his palace and temple, and impresses her to the extent that she praises for placing on the throne and declares his wisdom surpasses reports. She presents lavish gifts, including 120 talents of gold, large quantities of spices, and precious stones, and receives in return whatever she desires from 's household. A parallel account in 2 Chronicles 9:1-12 emphasizes her astonishment at 's wisdom, servants, and opulent provisions, reinforcing her recognition of divine favor upon . Rabbinic literature expands on the biblical narrative through midrashic interpretations, portraying the Queen as engaging Solomon in intellectual challenges to verify his sagacity. Midrashic sources describe her devising scenarios, such as a carpet of glass over water to mimic dry land, which Solomon discerns through observation of her cautious steps, and posing riddles tied to natural phenomena or ethical dilemmas, all of which he resolves. For instance, Midrash Mishlei attributes riddles to her concerning themes like the shamir worm used in temple construction and comparisons between natural elements, interpreting her queries as probes into Solomon's Torah knowledge. These aggadot highlight Solomon's superiority and the Queen's admiration, without naming her or attributing supernatural traits. Talmudic references to the Queen remain limited, with Targum Sheni to providing an elaborate retelling that supplements the biblical visit with additional dialogues and tests, though later medieval midrashim introduce legendary elements like hairy legs symbolizing demonic heritage, which scholars debate as applying to her or another figure. In these traditions, her encounter underscores themes of divine wisdom's universality and acknowledgment of Israelite monarchy's legitimacy, as evidenced by her explicit praise of over local deities. Jewish views the episode not as romance—despite midrashic hints at intimacy in some interpretations—but as validation of Solomon's rule and monotheism's appeal.

In Christianity

In the New Testament, Jesus identifies the Queen of Sheba as the "Queen of the South," declaring that she will rise at the final to condemn his generation for rejecting him, as she had journeyed from distant lands to hear 's wisdom, yet "a greater than is here." This reference, found in 12:42 and paralleled in Luke 11:31, portrays her as a exemplar of earnest pursuit of truth and divine insight, willing to undertake a arduous upon hearing reports of 's God-given wisdom. Christian interpreters have viewed her story as illustrating the universal draw of God's , with her testing of through riddles and subsequent praise—"There is no one so wise and understanding as you are"—affirming the authenticity of divine when confronted directly. Her acknowledgment that 's prosperity stemmed from underscores themes of recognition and humility before God's sovereignty, serving as a rebuke to those who dismiss greater spiritual truths. In theological reflection, some traditions see typological parallels, with the queen representing Gentiles drawn to Christ, whom foreshadows as the ultimate source of . Though not canonized as a saint or assigned a liturgical feast in , her narrative has influenced homiletic and devotional literature, emphasizing faith's response to evidence of God's works. In Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, she receives elevated reverence tied to national origins, distinct from the biblical core but integrated into ecclesial identity.

In Islam

In the Quran, the Queen of Sheba appears in Surah An-Naml (27:20–44) as a ruler of a sun-worshiping people who encounters the Prophet (Solomon) and ultimately submits to , declaring, "My Lord, indeed I have wronged myself, and I submit with Sulayman to , Lord of the worlds" ( 27:44). This narrative highlights her as a figure of rational , consulting advisors before responding to Sulayman's invitation and recognizing divine truth through empirical signs, such as the transported and the glass pavement test mimicking water. The story's theological significance lies in demonstrating the universality of monotheistic guidance beyond Israelite prophets, portraying Bilqis—named in later traditions—as a non-prophetess who voluntarily abandons for (divine unity) after witnessing Sulayman's God-given authority over , winds, and knowledge. It underscores the futility of material power and , as her kingdom's and sun worship prove inferior to submission to the Creator, teaching that true sovereignty belongs to alone. Islamic , including , praises her wisdom and leadership, depicting her as intelligent and consultative rather than tyrannical, with her conversion exemplifying humility before truth over ego-driven rule. In Shi'a traditions, the account reinforces themes of prophetic miracles and the rejection of shirk (associating partners with God), positioning her people’s shift to as a reward for her pivotal recognition of reality. While some later narrations introduce legendary elements like jinn heritage, core Quranic emphasis remains on her as a model of empowered female agency aligned with divine will, free from patriarchal diminishment.

Historical and Archaeological Analysis

Debate on Historicity

The of the Queen of Sheba remains unproven due to the absence of contemporary inscriptions, records, or artifacts explicitly naming her or documenting a visit to during the reign of , 970–931 BCE. Biblical and Quranic accounts, the primary sources, describe her as ruler of bearing gifts of spices, , and precious stones, but these narratives lack corroboration from South Arabian epigraphy, where thousands of Sabaean texts detail rulers and events yet omit any such figure or journey. Scholars note that while the Kingdom of existed in what is now from approximately 1000–800 BCE, centered on trade in and , no direct link ties a specific queen to Israelite interactions in the BCE. Arguments favoring a historical basis emphasize the plausibility within known geopolitical and economic contexts. Neo-Assyrian records from the 8th–7th centuries BCE confirm female rulers in Arabian kingdoms, including Saba, where mukarribs (kings) and queens coexisted, suggesting queenship was not anomalous. Archaeological evidence of 10th-century BCE trade networks—evidenced by Levantine pottery in Yemen and South Arabian goods like incense in Israel—supports diplomatic exchanges that could underpin the story's core, such as a queen's envoy assessing Solomon's prosperity amid burgeoning spice routes. A 2023 analysis of a Jerusalem potsherd inscription from the 10th century BCE, bearing the name "Elishama" and a possible Sheban reference, hints at administrative ties to distant trade partners, though not conclusively to a royal visit. Counterarguments highlight the narrative's embellishments, including riddles testing and elements like a bird in Islamic traditions, which align more with folkloric motifs than verifiable . Critical scholars often view the account as a composite or etiological tale, possibly retrojected to glorify Solomon's reign or explain cultural exchanges, given the biblical text's composition centuries later, around the 6th–5th centuries BCE. Ethiopian claims of her rule there, amplified in the , lack supporting archaeology, with no 10th-century BCE queenly records in Aksum or D'mt regions predating known rulers. The debate reflects broader challenges in verifying Iron Age individuals without epigraphic attestation; while absence of evidence does not preclude existence—especially for peripheral figures in oral traditions—empirical standards demand corroboration beyond scriptural sources, leading most historians to classify her as legendary with potential historical inspirations from real Sabean queens and .

Identification of Sheba's Location

The ancient kingdom of is most commonly identified by historians and archaeologists with the Sabaean kingdom centered in what is now , in the southwestern . This identification stems from epigraphic evidence, including inscriptions dating from the BCE onward, which document a prosperous known for its control over trade routes and hydraulic engineering feats like the . The biblical description of Sheba as a source of , spices, and precious stones aligns with archaeological findings of South Arabian exports, such as and , which were staples of the region's economy from at least the BCE. Excavations at sites like , the presumed capital, have uncovered temples, palaces, and monumental inscriptions attesting to Sabaean rulers and military campaigns contemporaneous with the biblical era of King Solomon around 950 BCE. A recently deciphered inscription on a from this period mentions and royal administration, providing indirect corroboration for a structured kingdom capable of the diplomatic and economic interactions described in 1 Kings 10. Scholarly consensus, drawn from textual and material evidence, places Sheba's core territory in the Wadi Hadhramaut and surrounding oases, rather than across the , due to the absence of comparable early inscriptions or monumental architecture in ancient matching the timeline. Alternative identifications linking Sheba to Ethiopia arise primarily from medieval traditions, such as the 14th-century Kebra Nagast, which retrojects the queen's realm to the Horn of Africa to legitimize Solomonic dynasties, but lack support from pre-Christian archaeological records. While Ethiopian highlands show Neolithic activity, no evidence exists for a centralized kingdom there before the rise of Aksum in the 1st century CE, centuries after the purported events. This Ethiopian association, though culturally enduring, reflects legendary expansion rather than historical geography, as confirmed by comparative linguistics tying Sabaic to South Semitic languages indigenous to Arabia. Some hypotheses propose a dual realm spanning Yemen and Ethiopia via trade colonies, but these remain speculative without direct attestation.

Archaeological Evidence and Trade Networks

Archaeological excavations in modern have uncovered extensive remains of the , including , dams, and inscriptions dating from the BCE onward, confirming the existence of a sophisticated South Arabian centered at sites like Ma'rib and Sirwah. These findings include monumental structures such as the Barran complex and hydraulic engineering feats like the Ma'rib Dam, which supported agriculture and trade in and , key commodities associated with in ancient texts. Inscriptions in the script document royal activities, tribal alliances, and economic endeavors, though the earliest dated examples postdate the putative era of (c. 970–930 BCE) by a century or more. A pivotal discovery linking Sabaean influence to the Levant is a 10th-century BCE inscription in found on a large storage jar () during excavations in 's , specifically the area. Deciphered in 2023 by epigrapher Vainstub, the script reads as a name or formula akin to dedicatory markers from , suggesting the vessel's origin in the Sabaean realm and its transport to via trade routes. Paleographic analysis dates the inscription to the late 10th century BCE, aligning with the biblical timeline for Solomon's reign and indicating direct commercial or diplomatic exchanges between and . This artifact provides the earliest material evidence of Sabaean presence in the northern , supporting the plausibility of extensive trade networks described in 1 Kings 10. The Sabaean economy thrived on the , a network of overland caravan paths from through the to and the Mediterranean, facilitating exports of aromatics, , and to , the , and beyond. Domestication of the dromedary camel around the 10th century BCE enabled efficient long-distance transport, correlating with increased archaeological traces of like residues in Judean sites and South Arabian motifs in artifacts. Neo-Assyrian annals from the 8th–7th centuries BCE reference (Šbʾ) as a distant land of queens and spices, attesting to ongoing Arabian-Levantine commerce that likely predated these records. While no inscriptions or artifacts directly corroborate a specific royal visit akin to the Queen of Sheba's, the and broader trade infrastructure evince cultural and economic interconnections sufficient to underpin the biblical narrative's context, without proving its historicity. Claims of Ethiopian origins for lack comparable 10th-century BCE archaeological support, with Aksumite development emerging later under South Arabian influence.

Scholarly Hypotheses on Narrative Origins

Scholars have proposed several hypotheses regarding the origins of the Queen of Sheba narrative, primarily drawing from the account in 1 Kings 10:1–13 and its parallel in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12, which describe her journey from Sheba to test Solomon's wisdom with riddles, bearing gifts of gold, spices, and precious stones. One hypothesis posits a historical kernel rooted in diplomatic or commercial relations between the early Israelite kingdom and South Arabian polities around the 10th century BCE, when trade networks for incense, gold, and spices linked the Levant to regions like Saba (modern Yemen). This view, advanced by archaeologist James Sauer, suggests the visit aimed to secure distribution channels for Sabaean incense, evidenced by biblical mentions of camels laden with spices and Assyrian records from the 8th century BCE documenting tribute from Arab queens, such as Samsi of the Arabs, indicating female rulers were not anomalous in the region. An etiological holds that the emerged to explain the origins of exotic in Jerusalem's economy, attributing Solomon's wealth to Sheba's as a causal mechanism for Judah's prosperity amid established Red Sea trade routes dating to at least the 15th century BCE. Proponents cite Sabean inscriptions and biblical references to shipments (1 Kings 9:26–28), arguing the narrative retroactively justifies the presence of and in cultic practices, though direct epigraphic evidence for a specific queen's visit remains absent. Conservative biblical archaeologists, such as those affiliated with the Associates for Biblical Research, emphasize this as preserving authentic court annals, countering minimalist dismissals that attribute the to later invention due to anachronistic details like the scale of trade. In contrast, form-critical and redactional analyses classify the episode as a literary " report" or exemplar within Near Eastern tale genres, composed or finalized during the Persian period (538–350 BCE) to glorify Solomon's reign retrospectively. Scholars like Emanuelle Pastore argue it functions as a microcosm ("") of the Davidic , emphasizing Yahweh's sovereignty through foreign acclaim, tailored for post-exilic to reinforce ethnic and theological identity amid rule, rather than reflecting 10th-century events. This perspective highlights structural parallels to other biblical motifs but has been critiqued for presupposing a low chronology that downplays archaeological corroboration of early trade, potentially influenced by broader academic skepticism toward the historicity of the United Monarchy. Linguistic and onomastic studies offer ancillary insights, with Ernst Knauf proposing that "" derives from roots linking to earlier migrations ( 10:7), suggesting the narrative amalgamated oral traditions about South Arabian-Sabaean interactions into Israelite lore by the monarchy's late phase. No single hypothesis commands consensus, as —such as temple remains and caravan routes—supports trade realism but not a event, underscoring the narrative's likely hybrid of historical reminiscence, theological didacticism, and legendary embellishment.

Cultural Depictions and Legacy

In Art and Literature

The Queen of Sheba appears in expanded narratives within religious literature beyond the Hebrew Bible's account in 1 Kings 10 and 2 Chronicles 9. In the Ethiopian , a 14th-century Ge'ez text, she is named Makeda and portrayed as visiting , who impregnates her during her stay in , leading to the birth of their son ; Menelik later retrieves the to , establishing the Solomonic lineage claimed by Ethiopian emperors until 1974. In Islamic sources, identified as Bilqis, her story in 27:20–44 describes a bird informing of her sun-worshipping kingdom; summons her court, transports her throne via , and converts her after she mistakes his crystal pavement for water, submitting to . Later tafsirs and , such as in , elaborate on her wisdom and the supernatural elements of her encounter. Artistic depictions of the Queen of Sheba emerge in late antique murals, such as the 3rd-century showing her reception by , emphasizing themes of wisdom and exotic tribute. Medieval European sculpture and , like the 12th-century at Saint-Denis Abbey featuring her head, integrated her into Christian symbolizing the Church's triumph over . Renaissance painters frequently illustrated her visit to as an for virtuous rule and intellectual exchange. Jacopo Tintoretto's circa 1545 oil Solomon and the Queen of portrays the monarchs in a dynamic architectural setting, highlighting opulence and mutual respect. Similarly, Piero della Francesca's fresco cycle in the (circa 1452–1466) details her prophecy of the cross's sanctity, linking her to Christian typology. Lavinia Fontana's 16th-century The Visit of the Queen of to King depicts the queen in elaborate attire, underscoring female agency in biblical narrative. Islamic art, including Safavid Persian miniatures, represents Bilqis enthroned or in dialogue with , often in illuminated manuscripts emphasizing her conversion and the throne's translocation. These portrayals across traditions consistently draw from scriptural motifs of testing through riddles and exchanging vast spices, , and , with 120 talents of noted in the biblical text.

In Music, Film, and Modern Media

The has appeared in various cinematic adaptations, often emphasizing her visit to and romantic or dramatic elements. A 1921 silent titled The Queen of Sheba, directed by J. Gordon Edwards and produced by Fox Film Corporation, starred as the Queen and as King , depicting an ill-fated romance amid political intrigue. In 1952, the The Queen of Sheba (La regina di Saba), directed by Pietro Francisci, featured Leonora Ruffo as the Queen, who falls in love with 's son while on a mission, leading to conflict. The 1959 Hollywood epic , directed by , cast as the Queen opposite as , portraying her as a seductive rival queen plotting against before her conversion. A 1995 television movie Solomon & Sheba, directed by Robert M. Young, starred as the Queen undertaking a secret journey to , highlighting themes of wisdom and alliance. In music, the Queen of Sheba is prominently featured in George Frideric Handel's 1749 oratorio Solomon, where the sinfonia "The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba" opens Act III, depicting her ceremonial entrance with lively oboes and strings evoking pomp and exoticism. This instrumental piece has become one of Handel's most performed works, frequently arranged for orchestras, chamber ensembles, and even weddings, and incorporated into soundtracks such as the 1994 film Four Weddings and a Funeral. In modern media, the Queen of Sheba, often syncretized as Bilquis, appears in the 2017 television adaptation of Neil Gaiman's , portrayed by as an ancient fertility goddess surviving into contemporary times through seductive encounters, drawing on her legendary allure and Ethiopian-Islamic traditions. Her figure also inspires , such as Tosca Lee's 2022 novel , which explores her as Makeda, ruler of ancient , navigating power and faith. These portrayals frequently emphasize her as a symbol of exotic and , though interpretations vary by cultural lens without direct archaeological corroboration.

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