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Peruvian pelican

The Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) is a large seabird in the family Pelecanidae, closely related to but larger than the brown pelican (P. occidentalis), and endemic to the Pacific coast of South America from central Peru to central Chile.^[1] Adults measure approximately 1.5 m in length, have a wingspan of about 2.3 m, and weigh 5–7 kg, with silvery gray plumage on the body, a pale yellow to white head and neck, and a massive bill featuring a expandable gular pouch for capturing prey; during breeding, the neck sides develop rich reddish-brown tones, and the bill shows red on the lower mandible.^[2]^[3] It inhabits shallow nearshore waters of the Humboldt Current upwelling system, breeding in large colonies on rocky islands and coastal cliffs, where it nests in loose groups on the ground or low vegetation.^[4] These birds are plunge-divers and surface feeders, primarily targeting small schooling fish such as anchoveta (Engraulis ringens), often foraging in flocks during the day but also nocturnally during incubation to minimize nest desertion.^[4]^[3] Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in austral summer, with clutches of 1–3 eggs incubated for about 30–35 days; colonies can host thousands of pairs, though entire populations may abandon breeding sites during strong El Niño events, leading to high chick mortality.^[4] The global population is estimated at 100,000–1,000,000 individuals (as of 2006) but has experienced significant declines of 31–38% in Peru since 2022 due to highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks and a strong El Niño event; overall trends were previously increasing but are now uncertain, and the species is classified as Near Threatened due to vulnerability to El Niño-induced food shortages, competition from industrial fisheries for anchoveta, and emerging disease threats.^[4]^[5] Recent records indicate southward range expansion in Chile, possibly linked to warming ocean conditions and prey availability.^[6]

Taxonomy

Classification

The Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus Molina, 1782) belongs to the order Pelecaniformes and the family Pelecanidae, which comprises the world's eight extant pelican species.^[1] Historically treated as a subspecies of the brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) since Peters (1931), the Peruvian pelican was elevated to full species status by the South American Classification Committee in 2007 and subsequently by the American Ornithologists' Union in its Forty-Ninth Supplement.^[7]^[8] This taxonomic revision was driven by pronounced morphological differences, including the Peruvian pelican's nearly double the body size, distinct plumage patterns, and unique soft-part coloration (such as blue gular pouch and loral papillae in breeding adults), alongside the absence of hybridization in areas of potential overlap.^[7]^[8] Phylogenetic analysis using DNA sequences from mitochondrial (cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunits) and nuclear genes (e.g., RAG-1, c-myc) has firmly established the Peruvian pelican within the brown pelican clade of New World pelicans, rendering it a sister species to P. occidentalis with strong bootstrap support (100%).^[9] A key 2012 study analyzed over 3 kb of sequence data across all extant pelican species, revealing a genetic divergence of 1.18–1.27% between P. thagus and P. occidentalis, indicative of recent speciation without gene flow.^[9] This separation is estimated to have occurred 0.77–1.54 million years ago, based on molecular clock calibrations assuming 1–2% sequence divergence per million years.^[9]^[10] The evolutionary history of the genus Pelecanus traces back approximately 30 million years to the Oligocene, with the oldest attributed fossils resembling modern forms in beak morphology.^[9] Extinct relatives highlight the family's ancient diversification across continents, though New World lineages like the Peruvian pelican clade likely arose later through vicariance or dispersal events.^[9]

Etymology

The scientific name of the Peruvian pelican is Pelecanus thagus. The genus name Pelecanus originates from the Ancient Greek pelekan (πελεκάν), referring to the pelican, which itself derives from pelekys (πέλεκυς), meaning "axe"—an allusion to the distinctive shape of the bird's large, hooked bill. The specific epithet thagus was coined by Juan Ignacio Molina in his 1782 description of the species, likely as an adaptation of "tagua," a local Chilean name for coots of the genus Fulica (such as the red-gartered coot, Fulica armillata), which Molina erroneously applied to this pelican.^[11] The common English name "Peruvian pelican" highlights the species' primary breeding distribution along the Pacific coast of Peru, where it forms large colonies, and was formalized after its taxonomic elevation to full species status in 2007 by the South American Classification Committee and in 2008 by the American Ornithologists' Union to distinguish it from the closely related brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis).^[7] This split by the South American Classification Committee (SACC) was based on morphological, ecological, and genetic differences, ending a long history of treating P. thagus as a subspecies of the brown pelican since the 19th century.^[12] Molina first described the Peruvian pelican as Pelecanus thagus in his seminal work Saggio sulla Storia Naturale del Chili (Essay on the Natural History of Chile), published in 1782 in Bologna, Italy, where he had been exiled as a Jesuit priest.^[13] Subsequent taxonomic revisions in the 20th century, such as those by Peters (1931) and Hellmayr (1932), subsumed it under P. occidentalis, but field observations and studies from the late 20th and early 21st centuries supported its recognition as distinct.^[7] In Spanish-speaking regions, the bird is commonly called pelícano peruano in Peru and pelícano chileno or simply pelícano in Chile, reflecting its range across both countries.^[2]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) is endemic to the Pacific coast of South America, primarily breeding along the coastal waters influenced by the Humboldt Current. Its core breeding range extends from northern Peru, where a recently documented colony at Isla Foca (approximately 5°S) represents the northernmost known breeding site, southward through central Peru (roughly 4°S to 18°S) to northern and central Chile (up to about 33.5°S).^[4]^[14] Key breeding colonies include Isla Guañape in Peru's La Libertad region and the Ballestas Islands off the Paracas Peninsula, where large numbers nest on rocky shores and islets during the austral summer.^[5]^[4] Beyond the breeding areas, the species exhibits limited non-breeding vagrancy, with occasional records in southern Ecuador (around 1°S) and southern Chile (down to approximately 40°S), often linked to post-breeding dispersal or environmental disruptions like El Niño events that alter prey distribution.^[4]^[1] Surveys indicate recent increases in sightings within Chilean Patagonia, extending sporadically to 49°S on Wellington Island, suggesting a potential southward shift in the non-breeding range over the past decade.^[6] Historically, intensive guano harvesting in the 19th and early 20th centuries disturbed major breeding colonies along the Peruvian coast, leading to significant population reductions and temporary abandonment of some sites, though the overall geographic range showed resilience and remained centered on the Peru-Chile coastal corridor.^[15] In recent years, 2023 aerial and ground surveys documented stable breeding at traditional Peruvian sites amid the 2023–2024 El Niño, which prompted southward movements into Chile for foraging.^[5] The species does not undertake long-distance migration but engages in seasonal coastal movements tracking anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) schools within the Humboldt Current system, which sustains its distribution.^[4]^[1]

Preferred habitats

The Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) primarily inhabits coastal marine environments along the Pacific coast of South America, where the cold Humboldt Current drives nutrient-rich upwelling that supports abundant fish populations essential for its survival.^[4] This species favors rocky shores, sea cliffs, and offshore islands for breeding colonies, often selecting sites with minimal vegetation in the arid coastal deserts of Peru and Chile.^[4]^[16] For foraging, the Peruvian pelican targets shallow nearshore waters, typically within 10–40 km offshore, concentrating in upwelling zones where small schooling fish like anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) aggregate due to the Humboldt Current's influence.^[4]^[17] It avoids deep ocean waters and inland freshwater systems, restricting its activities to marine neritic habitats including subtidal rocky reefs and pelagic areas close to the coast.^[4] Roosting sites are similarly coastal, with the species preferring exposed rocks, jetties, and guano-covered offshore islands that provide secure, elevated perches away from terrestrial predators.^[4]^[16] These arid, desert-like settings dominate its range, from northern Peru to central Chile, emphasizing its adaptation to barren, windswept coastal landscapes.^[4] The bird thrives in cool, nutrient-rich waters maintained by the Humboldt Current, with sea surface temperatures typically ranging from 14–20°C, which promote high primary productivity.^[4]^[18] However, it is highly vulnerable to warm-water disruptions from El Niño events, which elevate temperatures above 20–25°C, reduce upwelling, and diminish prey availability, often leading to breeding failures and habitat unsuitability.^[4]^[16]

Description

Physical characteristics

The Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) is a large pelican species in the New World, with males substantially larger than females. Adults measure 137–152 cm in total length, possess a wingspan of 228 cm, and weigh 5.1–7.0 kg.^[1] These dimensions render it nearly twice the size of the brown pelican (P. occidentalis), making it bulkier overall with a proportionally straighter bill.^[7] Key anatomical features include a massive bill, with culmen lengths averaging 39.7 cm (range 34.0–42.5 cm) in males and 35.4 cm (33.2–39.0 cm) in females, paired with an expandable gular pouch that functions in fish storage after capture.^[7] The legs are short and terminate in fully webbed feet suited for aquatic propulsion, while the wings are broad and powerful, facilitating extended soaring flights over nearshore waters.^[1] Structural adaptations support its marine lifestyle, including a capacious throat pouch that expands during plunge-dives to scoop prey from shallow depths, and laterally positioned eyes that enhance underwater visibility upon submersion. Crest and nape feathers, elongated in adults, contribute to structural displays during social interactions.^[1]

Plumage and sexual dimorphism

The adult Peruvian pelican exhibits a predominantly dark brown plumage on the body and wings, with pale silvery-white scapulars and tertial coverts forming a conspicuous pale panel visible in flight, contrasted by a dark brown humeral patch.^[7]^[19] The head and neck feature a pale yellowish-white forehead and crown, often with a rufous tinge, and a distinctive white stripe extending from the bill along the side of the neck, while the rear neck is blackish.^[19] The underparts are whitish with pale streaks, giving a mottled appearance, and the underwing coverts are white.^[7] In the breeding season, the back and sides of the neck turn a rich dark reddish-brown, the nuchal crest lengthens into a prominent tuft, the bill becomes yellowish with a red gape and lower mandible fading to yellow at the base, and the gular pouch brightens to pale blue with black and cream-yellow markings.^[19]^[2] Outside breeding, the plumage dulls slightly, the neck is entirely white, the crest shortens, and the bill and pouch lose their vivid colors, fading to duller yellow and whitish tones.^[19] Juveniles possess a more uniform and paler plumage than adults, with overall dark brown coloration including the neck and rear head, lacking the white neck stripe and nuchal crest of adults.^[19]^[20] The underparts are whitish with brown streaks on the flanks and sides, the forehead and ear-coverts are dull white, and the bill and gular pouch are pale yellowish to whitish without red or blue hues.^[19] Plumage maturation occurs gradually over two years, with subadults retaining more white on the abdomen and transitioning through intermediate stages of darkening and patterning before acquiring full adult coloration.^[1]^[19] Sexual dimorphism in plumage is minimal, with males and females similar in coloration and patterns, though males are slightly larger overall and may exhibit a more pronounced nuchal crest during the breeding season.^[7]^[19] The Peruvian pelican undergoes an annual pre-breeding molt that enhances the coloration of the bill, gular pouch, and neck, contributing to the vivid breeding appearance, while post-breeding changes involve fading of these colors as the bird returns to non-breeding plumage.^[19]^[2] Juveniles complete their transition to adult plumage through successive molts over 2–3 years.^[1]^[19]

Behavior

Breeding biology

The Peruvian pelican breeds in loose colonies along the Pacific coast of South America, with the season typically spanning from September to March, though onset can begin as early as July and peak in September, extending until April in some years. This reproductive timing is closely synchronized with peaks in Peruvian anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) abundance, which provides essential food resources for provisioning chicks during the later phases of the cycle when young become independent. Colonies vary in size but often consist of tens to thousands of breeding pairs, situated on guano-covered islands, rocky headlands, or coastal cliffs to minimize terrestrial predation.^[21]^[22]^[4]^[5] Nests are constructed as simple ground scrapes or low platforms of sticks and vegetation, often lined with seaweed or other available debris for minimal insulation and camouflage. Both sexes participate in site selection and nest preparation, with pairs maintaining monogamous bonds for the duration of the breeding attempt. The female lays a clutch of 2–3 chalky white eggs, with an average clutch size of 2.5; laying is asynchronous within colonies to spread risk from environmental fluctuations. Incubation duties are shared equally between parents and lasts 30–35 days, during which the non-incubating partner forages to sustain the pair.^[1]^[22] Upon hatching, chicks are altricial, naked, and weigh approximately 100 g, requiring intensive biparental care including brooding and frequent feeding of regurgitated fish. The full chick-rearing period extends 10–12 weeks until fledging, with the total reproductive cycle from egg-laying to fledging averaging approximately 4 months. Chick mortality is high, reaching up to 50% in some cohorts due to starvation during prey shortages and predation by gulls (Larus spp.) or Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura); complete reproductive failure can occur during severe El Niño events when anchoveta stocks collapse. Breeding success varies with oceanographic conditions, yielding around 0.8 fledglings per breeding pair in favorable years, though overall rates are constrained by the species' dependence on upwelling-driven productivity.^[1]^[4]^[22]

Feeding and foraging

The Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) primarily consumes small schooling fish, with the Peruvian anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) comprising approximately 90% of its diet in the northern Humboldt Current system.^[23] Other key prey includes sardines (Sardinops sagax) and silversides such as Trachurus murphyi, which are targeted during periods of anchoveta scarcity.^[24] Occasionally, the birds ingest squid or crustaceans, though these constitute a minor portion of their intake.^[25] Foraging occurs mainly in shallow coastal waters influenced by upwellings, where pelicans employ a combination of plunge-diving and surface scooping techniques. Plunge-dives are initiated from low heights, allowing the birds to capture fish in depths up to several meters, while surface scooping involves swimming and using the expandable gular pouch to trap prey near the water's surface.^[23] Studies using GPS dataloggers on incubating individuals have documented nocturnal foraging, with up to 22% of tracked activity occurring at night, often involving extended floating bouts over fish shoals up to 82.8 km offshore.^[26] Daily fish consumption averages 1–2 kg per bird, with energy demands closely linked to prey density in nutrient-rich upwelling zones that support high fish biomass. As a top predator in the Humboldt Current ecosystem, the Peruvian pelican serves as an indicator species for marine health, reflecting fluctuations in pelagic fish abundance driven by upwelling intensity.^[27] From 2022 to 2025, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI H5N1) outbreaks caused widespread mortality in Peruvian pelicans through symptoms including disorientation and neurological issues, with over 13,000 confirmed cases and thousands of deaths in seabirds across South America, highlighting vulnerabilities in this fish-dependent food web.^[28]^[29] The Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) exhibits highly gregarious behavior outside of breeding, forming loose flocks typically ranging from dozens to hundreds of individuals for foraging and roosting along coastal areas. In observations from seabird colonies in Chilean Patagonia, groups varied in composition, with sites hosting 194 to over 700 pelicans perching on gentle slopes and beaches, predominantly adults during non-breeding periods and juveniles post-fledging. These aggregations show minimal intraspecific aggression, allowing for stable co-occupancy of shared roosting sites without significant territorial disputes.^[30] Social communication among Peruvian pelicans involves a range of vocal and physical signals, including low grunts and hisses emitted during close interactions, as well as bill-clapping and snapping to convey agitation or maintain spacing within flocks. Aerial chases are occasionally employed to enforce proximity or deter minor intrusions, facilitating coordinated group movements without escalating to physical contact. These behaviors support the species' cooperative dynamics in non-reproductive contexts, such as synchronized flights over nearshore waters.^[31] Interspecies interactions are generally tolerant, with Peruvian pelicans frequently associating with boobies (Sula spp.) and cormorants (Phalacrocorax spp.) in mixed foraging flocks and shared colonies, where they exploit overlapping coastal habitats. A 2016 study in Patagonia documented peaceful cohabitation with species like imperial cormorants (Phalacrocorax atriceps) and Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), though occasional competitive displacement of cormorants from perches was noted, highlighting adaptive social flexibility in multi-species environments.^[30]^[23] Movement patterns are predominantly diurnal, with pelicans engaging in soaring flights characterized by deep, methodical wingbeats along the Pacific coast, often in loose formations to scan for prey or transit between roosts and foraging grounds. While the species does not undertake long migrations, local dispersal occurs post-breeding, enabling individuals to shift southward or along the shoreline in response to resource availability.

Conservation

Population status

The global population of the Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) is estimated at 100,000–1,000,000 individuals, with the majority occurring in Peru (approximately 80%) and the remainder primarily in Chile (approximately 20%).^[4]^[1] The species is classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN Red List, with the last full assessment in 2018 indicating a stable overall status, though a proposal to list it under Appendices I and II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) was adopted at CMS COP14 in 2024 to enhance international protection.^[4]^[32] Population trends show recovery from severe declines during the 1982–1983 El Niño event, which caused widespread breeding failures, high adult mortality, and reductions exceeding 50% in some areas, depressing numbers from a historical peak of around 509,000 individuals in 1988 to much lower levels.^[4]^[5] By the early 2000s, populations had stabilized or begun increasing, with suspected overall growth through the 2010s based on breeding records and sightings.^[4] However, recent surveys indicate renewed declines, particularly in Peru, where numbers in marine protected areas dropped 31.5–37.6% from a pre-outbreak peak of 125,794 individuals in August 2022 to a maximum of 46,046 in 2023, followed by partial recovery to 52,540 by early 2024.^[5] In 2025, overall guano-producing seabird populations in Peru, including pelicans, have declined over 75% to approximately 500,000 individuals in the past three years due to combined environmental and anthropogenic pressures.^[33] Monitoring efforts include annual censuses in key breeding areas since around 2010, coordinated through initiatives like the International Waterbird Census and national programs in Peru and Chile, which track colony sizes and breeding phenology to assess fluctuations linked to environmental variability.^[4]^[1] Subpopulations are concentrated in coastal colonies, with the largest known breeding site at Isla Lobos de Tierra in northern Peru, supporting thousands of pairs during peak seasons, though exact pair counts vary annually with breeding success.^[5]

Major threats

The Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) faces severe threats from overfishing of its primary prey, the anchoveta (Engraulis ringens), by industrial fisheries along the Peruvian coast. Large-scale commercial harvesting depletes anchoveta stocks, creating direct competition for food resources and leading to reduced prey availability for pelicans, which has historically caused dramatic population declines and breeding failures among seabirds dependent on this forage fish.^[4]^[34] El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events pose another critical threat by warming surface waters, which displaces anchoveta to deeper, inaccessible depths and disrupts the upwelling system essential for fish productivity. The severe 1997–1998 El Niño event resulted in a 99.4% decline in the Peruvian pelican population in Peru, with complete breeding failures and mass mortality due to starvation. With climate change projected to increase the frequency and intensity of such events, future impacts on pelican food stocks and breeding success are expected to intensify.^[35]^[4] A recent outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b emerged as a novel and devastating threat, beginning in November 2022 along Peru's coast and offshore islands. This epizootic caused mass die-offs, with Peruvian authorities reporting 39,633 to 47,414 pelican deaths by May 2023, representing the first major avian flu impact on the species and leading to significant breeding disruptions. The virus, introduced from North America, rapidly spread southward to Chile, affecting additional seabird populations through a single viral lineage; isolated cases continued in wild birds through May 2024.^[5]^[36]^[37] Additional threats include entanglement in small-scale fishing gear, though bycatch rates are low and affect only a minority of the population with negligible overall impact. Human disturbance from guano mining operations disrupts breeding colonies on coastal islands, potentially causing nest abandonment and reduced reproductive success. Coastal pollution from urban and industrial sources further endangers pelicans through habitat degradation, but the species has not experienced pesticide-related eggshell thinning like its North American relative, the brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis). These combined pressures have driven notable population declines in recent decades.^[4]^[5]

Protection efforts

The Peruvian pelican is classified as Endangered under Peruvian national legislation, reflecting its vulnerability within the country's coastal ecosystems.^[5] In 2024, the species was listed under both Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), providing enhanced international protections for its migratory populations and prohibiting take that would be incompatible with its conservation.^[32] These listings aim to coordinate transboundary efforts between Peru and Chile, where the pelican's range spans. Breeding colonies of the Peruvian pelican are safeguarded within key protected areas along the Peruvian coast, including the Paracas National Reserve and the Guano Islands, Islets, and Capes National Reserve System (RNSIIPG), which encompasses approximately 94.8% of the nation's islands and supports regulated guano harvesting to minimize disturbance.^[5] The RNSIIPG, managed by the National Service of Natural Areas Protected by the State (SERNANP), covers over 476,000 hectares and integrates marine zones that protect foraging habitats, with an average of 62.46% of the species' Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) overlapping protected territories in Peru and Chile.^[38]^[4] Conservation initiatives include the long-term monitoring program of the Neotropical Waterbird Census (CNAA), coordinated by organizations such as Wetlands International, which conducts biannual counts to track colony health and breeding success since the early 2000s. In response to the 2022–2023 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreak, Peruvian authorities, in collaboration with international partners including NIAID-funded researchers, implemented carcass removal and burial protocols in protected areas to curb disease spread, alongside enhanced surveillance by SERNANP and Agro Rural.^[39] Community-based guano harvesting under PROABONOS regulations restricts access during breeding seasons and limits extraction to sustainable levels, reducing nest disturbances as established in a 1998 agreement for sites like Punta San Juan.^[40] Research efforts focus on movement ecology and threat mitigation, with GPS tracking studies initiated post-2020, such as those at Punta San Juan in 2021, revealing foraging ranges up to 80 km from colonies to inform marine protected area expansions.^[41] Ongoing investigations by institutions like Universidad Científica del Sur evaluate post-HPAI population recovery and fishery interactions, while public education campaigns promote sustainable fishing practices to alleviate bycatch pressures.^[5]

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Highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus outbreak in Peru ...
Apr 16, 2024 · The 2022–2023 outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza in Peru is associated with the 2.3.4.4b clade. Peruvian samples share the same common ancestor with ...Missing: ecological indicator Humboldt
[37]
Guano Islands, Islets, and Capes National Reserve System form ...
The Guano Islands, Islets and Capes are distributed along the Peruvian coast, are in protected areas, legally recognized and cover an area of 476 284.69 ha.
[38]
HPAI Influenza Devastating Birds, Marine Mammals in Peru
Sep 11, 2023 · NIAID-funded researchers working in Peru have signaled concern about the deaths of birds and marine mammals from highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) that ...Missing: international | Show results with:international
[39]
Have we achieved a sustainable balance? Evaluating the effects of ...
Historically, guano harvests caused dire impacts on HUPE populations, becoming the main driver of their population decline (Hays, 1984, Murphy, 1936), and are ...Missing: contraction | Show results with:contraction
[40]
Peruvian Pelican Punta San Juan GPS 2021 | Seabird Tracking
Peruvian Pelican Punta San Juan GPS 2021. Viewing dataset map. 5,000km. Data provider / contact information. Carlos Zavalaga. Location. Country. Peru.Missing: post- 2020