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Phylum

In biology, a phylum (plural: phyla) is a principal taxonomic rank in the hierarchical classification system, positioned below kingdom and above class, that groups organisms sharing fundamental body plans, developmental patterns, or organizational features derived from common ancestry.^[1] This rank reflects hypothesized evolutionary relationships and is essential for organizing biodiversity into nested categories that facilitate scientific communication and study.^[1] The taxonomic hierarchy, formalized by Carl Linnaeus in works like Systema Naturae (1758), originally included ranks such as kingdom, class, order, genus, and species, but the phylum rank emerged in the early 19th century as classifications expanded to accommodate broader patterns of similarity among diverse organisms.^[2]^[3] Linnaeus's system emphasized binomial nomenclature for species, but higher ranks like phylum were later incorporated to address larger-scale groupings, evolving with advances in comparative anatomy, embryology, and, more recently, molecular phylogenetics.^[2]^[3] In modern usage, the full hierarchy typically encompasses domain (the highest level, introduced in 1990 to distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic life), kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, though intermediate and super-ranks may be added for precision.^[4] For animals and most other groups, the term "phylum" is standard, while in botany and mycology, the equivalent rank is often called "division" to denote major plant or fungal lineages based on reproductive or structural traits.^[5]^[3] Phyla represent diverse evolutionary branches; for example, the animal kingdom (Animalia) comprises over 30 recognized phyla, including Chordata (vertebrates and relatives) and Arthropoda (insects, crustaceans, and allies), with Arthropoda encompassing over a million species. Taxonomic assignments at the phylum level are governed by codes such as the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for animals and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) for others, ensuring stability through principles of priority and typification.^[1] Contemporary revisions, informed by genomic data, continue to refine phyla boundaries, as seen in the NCBI Taxonomy's 2021 inclusion of formal phylum ranks for prokaryotes to align with bacterial and archaeal diversity, with further updates in 2024 introducing kingdom ranks and in 2025 adding the realm rank while discontinuing superkingdom.^[6]^[7]^[8] This ongoing evolution underscores the phylum's role in bridging broad evolutionary history with detailed organismal classification.

Introduction

Etymology and Origin

The term "phylum" in biological taxonomy originates from the Greek word phylon (φῦλον), meaning "tribe," "race," "stock," or "clan," which Haeckel Latinized as phylum to denote major evolutionary lineages of organisms.^[9] Ernst Haeckel introduced the term in his 1866 work Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, where he equated it with the German Stamm (stem or tribe) to represent the highest category in his proposed phylogenetic hierarchy, grouping organisms based on shared ancestry and fundamental body plan similarities.^[9] Haeckel's intent was to formalize a natural classification system reflecting evolutionary descent, extending Darwinian principles by using comparative morphology to infer monophyletic groups united by common developmental patterns and structural homologies.^[9] Before Haeckel's formal establishment of the phylum rank, early 19th-century extensions of the Linnaean system employed informal higher-level groupings to accommodate broader organizational patterns beyond classes and orders.^[10] For instance, Georges Cuvier introduced the concept of embranchements in 1817, dividing the animal kingdom into four major branches—Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata, and Radiata—based on distinct anatomical and functional types, which served as precursors to the phylum by emphasizing irreducible organizational plans.^[10] These pre-Haeckelian approaches, while not phylogenetically oriented, laid groundwork for recognizing large-scale divisions in biodiversity without rigid rank nomenclature.^[9] Haeckel's initial application of the phylum concept in 1866 included specific proposals for the animal kingdom, such as the phylum Protozoa for unicellular forms, Porifera for sponges, and Coelenterata for radially symmetric, tissue-level organized invertebrates like jellyfish and corals, reflecting his emphasis on progressive complexity from primitive to advanced body plans.^[9] These examples drew partly from Cuvier's embranchements and Karl Ernst von Baer's animal types, adapting them into an evolutionary framework where phyla represented ancient stems (phyla) diverging from common ancestors.^[9]

Historical Development

The concept of phylum as a major taxonomic rank was formally introduced by Ernst Haeckel in his 1866 work Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, where he proposed it as a primary division in his phylogenetic classification system to reflect evolutionary relationships among organisms.^[11] In the late 19th century, zoologists such as E. Ray Lankester further refined the phylum rank by emphasizing fundamental body plans and comparative anatomy over strict genealogical descent, as seen in his 1877 reclassification of Vertebrata to include craniates, cephalochordates, and urochordates based on shared structural features like the notochord and neural tube.^[12] This approach allowed for a more systematic grouping of diverse animal forms, prioritizing morphological coherence in higher taxa amid the expanding knowledge of invertebrate diversity. Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) profoundly influenced this development by advocating a natural classification system rooted in common descent, transforming phyla from static, artificial categories into dynamic evolutionary lineages that captured branching patterns of divergence.^[13] The 20th century brought debates over phylum boundaries, particularly with the rise of numerical taxonomy in the 1960s, pioneered by Robert Sokal and Peter Sneath in their 1963 book Principles of Numerical Taxonomy, which applied quantitative phenetic methods to assess overall similarity across characters, challenging subjective morphological judgments and prompting reevaluations of traditional phylum groupings.^[14] These methods highlighted inconsistencies in higher-level classifications by automating character scoring and clustering, though they faced criticism for underemphasizing evolutionary history in favor of observable traits.^[15] By the 1990s, the cladistic revolution, building on Willi Hennig's earlier principles, increasingly integrated molecular data into phylogenetic analyses, leading to significant phylum reclassifications; for instance, studies using 18S rRNA sequences demonstrated the polyphyly of the traditional Aschelminthes group, necessitating its division into distinct clades such as Ecdysozoa.^[16]^[17] This shift marked a transition toward evidence-based boundaries for phyla, resolving longstanding ambiguities in pseudocoelomate relationships through parsimony-based trees that prioritized shared derived characters.^[18]

Taxonomic Framework

Position in Biological Classification

In biological classification, the phylum represents a major taxonomic rank positioned immediately below the kingdom and above the class within the standard Linnaean hierarchy.^[19] This hierarchy organizes organisms in a nested sequence: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, providing a structured framework for cataloging biodiversity based on shared characteristics.^[20] The rank was formally incorporated into taxonomic systems during the 19th century to accommodate increasing knowledge of organismal diversity.^[21] A phylum functions as an intermediate grouping that unites multiple classes of organisms exhibiting fundamental similarities in body plan or pivotal evolutionary innovations, such as bilateral symmetry or segmentation.^[22] This level of classification emphasizes broad structural and developmental patterns that distinguish major evolutionary lineages while allowing for variation at lower ranks.^[23] In practice, the phylum rank facilitates the systematic arrangement of life's diversity, enabling scientists to identify and study large-scale patterns in evolution and ecology. Usage of the term varies across biological disciplines; in botany and mycology, "division" serves as the equivalent to phylum, a convention established in the 19th century to align with plant and fungal classification traditions.^[24] This nomenclature difference reflects historical separations between zoological and botanical taxonomy, though modern codes of nomenclature permit both terms interchangeably.^[25] Phyla play a vital role in biodiversity organization, with the animal kingdom (Animalia) encompassing approximately 30-40 recognized phyla, each representing distinct body plans like those of arthropods or chordates.^[26] In contrast, other groups exhibit fewer phyla; for example, the plant kingdom (Plantae) includes about 12 divisions, highlighting the relative simplicity in vascular and non-vascular plant lineages compared to animal diversity.^[27]

Relation to Other Taxonomic Ranks

The phylum rank occupies an intermediate position in the taxonomic hierarchy, situated below the kingdom and above the class. Kingdoms represent broader groupings primarily based on fundamental cellular structure and organization, such as the Animalia kingdom encompassing multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with distinct body plans, while phyla delineate major evolutionary innovations like segmentation or radial symmetry within those kingdoms.^[28] In contrast, classes are narrower subdivisions within phyla, often emphasizing variations in organ systems or developmental patterns, such as the Mammalia class within the Chordata phylum, which highlights traits like hair and mammary glands.^[29] This positioning allows phyla to capture broad morphological and phylogenetic divergences that kingdoms overlook and classes refine.^[30] Phyla exhibit greater stability as "natural" taxonomic groups compared to lower ranks like orders and families, which tend to evolve and revise more rapidly due to finer-scale genetic and morphological variations. Higher ranks such as phylum rely on conserved, fundamental characters like body plan architecture, rendering them less susceptible to frequent reclassification, whereas orders and families often shift with emerging evidence of adaptive radiations or hybridizations.^[31] This relative stability has made phyla enduring anchors in biological classification, though not immune to change.^[28] Instances of rank inflation and deflation illustrate the phylum rank's flexibility, particularly in 20th-century revisions driven by improved anatomical and molecular data. For example, in worm classifications, the Acanthocephala group—thorny-headed parasites initially treated as a class or order within Platyhelminthes—were elevated to full phylum status by the mid-20th century based on unique proboscis structures and life cycle differences, reflecting a recognition of their distinct evolutionary lineage.^[32] Such elevations contributed to broader inflation at the phylum level, with the number of recognized animal phyla rising from about five in the 19th century to around 35 today, often through splitting previously lumped groups.^[28] Conversely, deflation has occurred, as seen in annelid worms where separate phyla like Sipuncula and Echiura were downgraded to subgroups within Annelida in early 21st-century analyses.^[33] In cladistic systems, taxonomic ranks including phylum are non-mandatory, as classifications prioritize monophyletic clades defined by shared ancestry rather than rigid hierarchies. Phyla may align with major clades but can vary in scope without enforced ranking, allowing for more dynamic representations of evolutionary relationships as per the PhyloCode framework.^[34] This approach underscores the artificiality of ranks while preserving phyla's utility for summarizing deep divergences.^[30]

Classification Criteria

Morphological and Anatomical Basis

The morphological and anatomical basis for defining phyla varies by major biological group, relying on shared fundamental body plans or structural features that reflect evolutionary divergence. In plants and fungi, the equivalent rank is often termed "division," emphasizing reproductive and organizational traits. For prokaryotes, morphological criteria are limited due to cellular simplicity. In animals, this basis emphasizes developmental and architectural features conserved across members of a phylum, distinguishing them from other groups.^[35] In plants, divisions are delineated by traits such as the presence of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem for water/nutrient transport), reproductive structures (e.g., spores in bryophytes vs. seeds in angiosperms), and life cycle patterns including alternation of generations. Non-vascular plants like mosses form one division (Bryophyta), while vascular seedless plants (e.g., ferns, Pteridophyta) differ from seed plants (e.g., gymnosperms, angiosperms) based on ovule enclosure and flower development.^[25] In fungi, phyla are defined primarily by reproductive morphology, including spore-producing structures and hyphal organization. For example, Ascomycota feature asci for ascospore production, Basidiomycota produce basidiospores on basidia, and earlier groups like Chytridiomycota rely on motile zoospores, reflecting aquatic adaptations. These traits, combined with septal pore types, unify phyla despite convergent forms.^[36] For prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea), morphological criteria play a secondary role in phylum definition, focusing on basic cellular features like shape (e.g., cocci, rods), cell wall composition (Gram-positive vs. Gram-negative staining), and motility (flagella presence). However, these are insufficient for deep phylogenetic splits and are integrated with molecular data in polyphasic taxonomy.^[37] In animals, key features include symmetry, tissue layering, and segmentation. Bilateral symmetry, where the body divides into mirror-image halves along a single plane, contrasts with radial symmetry and enables directed movement and cephalization in many phyla.^[38] Tissue organization refines boundaries: diploblastic animals possess two primary germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm), forming simple body walls, while triploblastic forms add a mesoderm layer, enabling complex internal structures.^[35] Key anatomical innovations serve as phylum-defining traits in animals, such as the presence or absence of a coelom—a fluid-filled body cavity lined by mesoderm providing support, organ movement, and hydrostatic skeleton function.^[39] Acoelomate plans lack this cavity, yielding solid bodies; pseudocoelomates have a partial, unlined cavity; true coelomates a complete one. Other innovations include circulatory systems—from open (hemolymph bathing organs) to closed (vessels)—and skeletal types like chitinous exoskeletons or hydrostatic mechanisms. Segmentation, repeating body units for modularity, delineates phyla as in annelids.^[40] These form the bauplan unifying members via comparative anatomy.^[41] Historically, this approach for animals originated with Georges Cuvier, whose 1817 Le Règne Animal proposed four archetypes—Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata, Radiata—based on organ system integration and architecture, not superficial traits.^[42] Cuvier's method linked structures to lifestyles, establishing phyla as natural groups. This influenced 19th-century taxonomy by viewing archetypes as adapted forms.^[43] Morphological classification limitations include convergent evolution, yielding polyphyletic groups from similar selective pressures.^[44] Worm-like forms were once lumped, obscuring relationships in pre-molecular schemes.^[45] Challenges integrate phylogenetic evidence, though morphology aids fossils and diversity interpretation.^[46]

Phylogenetic and Molecular Basis

In contemporary taxonomy, phyla are primarily delineated using cladistics, defining them as monophyletic clades from a common ancestor and descendants, united by synapomorphies. Pioneered by Willi Hennig, this prioritizes evolutionary relationships over similarities, refining boundaries to exclude paraphyletic groups and align with life's tree.^[47] Molecular data revolutionize classification by quantifying divergences; 16S rRNA sequencing is key for prokaryotes due to universality, conserved structure, and variable regions capturing deep splits. Carl Woese's work revealed phylum-level lineages morphology missed. For eukaryotes, multi-gene phylogenies using protein-coding genes provide resolution, confirming structural synapomorphies genomically.^[48] Woese and Fox's 1977 16S rRNA analysis split prokaryotes into Bacteria and Archaea domains, founding phyla and challenging Linnaean views.^[49] From the 2010s onward, Tree of Life initiatives reshaped eukaryotes, with Adl et al. revisions (2019, 2024) consolidating protists into monophyletic phyla/supergroups like Opisthokonta via phylogenomics.^[50] These highlight ancient divergences predating morphology, stressing integrative criteria. Phylogenies use models like Jukes-Cantor for distances, correcting multiple substitutions:

d = -\frac{3}{4} \ln \left(1 - \frac{4}{3} p \right)

where p is differing nucleotide proportion, assuming equal rates. This is vital for accurate phylum inferences in deep molecular data.

Phyla in Eukaryotic Domains

Animal Phyla

The kingdom Animalia encompasses approximately 35 recognized phyla, reflecting the immense diversity of multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that exhibit motility and specialized sensory systems.^[51] While these phyla span a wide array of body plans and ecological roles, more than 99% of all described animal species—estimated at over 1.5 million—are concentrated in just nine major phyla, including Arthropoda, Mollusca, and Chordata, which dominate terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats due to their adaptive radiations.^[52] This uneven distribution underscores how evolutionary innovations in a few lineages have driven the proliferation of animal life, with smaller phyla often representing relict or specialized groups. The origins of most animal phyla trace back to the Cambrian explosion, a rapid diversification event approximately 540 million years ago that marked the emergence of complex body plans in the fossil record.^[53] During this period, environmental changes such as rising oxygen levels and the evolution of predation likely facilitated the appearance of key morphological traits, including bilateral symmetry and segmentation, setting the stage for the metazoan radiation. Among the basal phyla, Porifera (sponges) stands out as the most primitive, lacking true tissues and organs; instead, they rely on a porous body structure with choanocytes for filter-feeding, comprising about 9,000 species primarily in marine environments.^[54] Cnidaria, including jellyfish and corals, represents an early divergence with radial symmetry and cnidocytes—specialized stinging cells for prey capture and defense—organizing cells into two true tissue layers separated by mesoglea, with around 10,000 species mostly aquatic.^[55] Higher phyla exhibit more advanced features aligned with bilaterian ancestry. Mollusca, with over 85,000 species, features soft-bodied animals typically equipped with a muscular foot for locomotion and a mantle for respiration or shell secretion, encompassing diverse forms from snails to octopuses.^[56] Arthropoda, the largest phylum with more than 1 million species accounting for over 85% of all known animals, is defined by a chitinous exoskeleton that provides protection and support, paired with jointed appendages enabling versatile movement, feeding, and sensing across insects, crustaceans, and arachnids.^[57]^[52] Finally, Chordata, including vertebrates and basal forms like tunicates, is characterized by a notochord for structural support, a dorsal hollow nerve cord for centralized nervous control, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail at some life stage, totaling about 65,000 species with profound ecological and evolutionary impact.^[58] Smaller phyla like Phoronida (horseshoe worms), with about 20 species, remain understudied with limited genomic data, highlighting gaps in our understanding of lophotrochozoan diversity, while Bryozoa (moss animals), with approximately 6,000 species, also warrants further study.^[59]^[60] Recent discoveries, such as the enigmatic Xenoturbella, continue to challenge phylum boundaries; this simple worm-like animal, once misclassified, now anchors the phylum Xenacoelomorpha as a basal deuterostome lineage, prompting revisions to early animal phylogeny based on its lack of complex organs and contested affinities. These findings emphasize the ongoing refinement of animal classification through molecular and fossil evidence.

Plant and Algal Phyla

In botanical taxonomy, the term "division" serves as a synonym for "phylum," reflecting the hierarchical classification of plants and algae within the kingdom Plantae.^[61] This kingdom encompasses approximately 12 major divisions, which include both algal lineages and the embryophytes (land plants), characterized by their photosynthetic capabilities and structural adaptations to diverse environments.^[62] These divisions are delineated based on reproductive strategies, vascular tissue presence, and pigmentation, with embryophytes representing a monophyletic clade derived from green algal ancestors. Among the key algal divisions, Chlorophyta, or green algae, stands out as ancestral to land plants, featuring chlorophyll a and b pigments that enable oxygenic photosynthesis similar to that in higher plants.^[63] This division includes unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms, many of which inhabit freshwater and marine habitats, serving as a bridge to terrestrial colonization. Within embryophytes, non-vascular divisions such as Bryophyta (mosses) lack specialized conductive tissues, relying on diffusion for water and nutrient transport, and dominate moist environments with simple, upright structures up to several centimeters tall.^[64] Vascular but seedless divisions, like Pteridophyta (ferns and allies), introduced xylem and phloem for efficient transport, allowing larger sizes and broader ecological distribution, though reproduction still depends on water for sperm motility. Seed-producing divisions include gymnosperms, such as Pinophyta (conifers), which bear naked seeds on cones and dominate boreal forests with evergreen habits, and angiosperms (flowering plants), the most diverse group with over 300,000 species, featuring enclosed seeds in fruits and double fertilization for enhanced reproductive efficiency.^[65] The evolutionary history of plant and algal phyla traces back to the transition from aquatic green algae around 1 billion years ago, marking the diversification of the streptophyte lineage that eventually gave rise to embryophytes.^[66] A pivotal milestone occurred approximately 420 million years ago in the Silurian period, when terrestrial vascular plants emerged, adapting to land through developments like cuticles for water retention and stomata for gas exchange.^[67] This shift enabled the conquest of terrestrial habitats, transforming global ecosystems by increasing oxygen levels and stabilizing soils. A hallmark of embryophyte phyla is the alternation of generations life cycle, where a multicellular diploid sporophyte phase alternates with a haploid gametophyte phase, an innovation absent in most algal ancestors and defining the clade's reproductive strategy.^[68] This diplohaplontic cycle supports adaptation to variable conditions, with the sporophyte becoming dominant in vascular plants. Complementing this, algal phyla like Rhodophyta (red algae) exhibit unique pigmentation, including phycoerythrin, a red accessory pigment that absorbs blue-green light, allowing photosynthesis in deeper marine waters up to 200 meters.^[69] Rhodophyta, primarily marine and multicellular, contribute significantly to coral reef formation and global carbon fixation through their calcifying structures.

Fungal and Protist Phyla

The kingdom Fungi encompasses more than 15 recognized phyla, reflecting its evolutionary diversity as a monophyletic group of eukaryotic organisms primarily characterized by heterotrophic nutrition, chitinous cell walls, and filamentous or yeast-like growth forms.^[70] Major phyla include Ascomycota, known as sac fungi for their ascus reproductive structures and encompassing yeasts like Saccharomyces cerevisiae used in fermentation, as well as lichens and plant pathogens; Basidiomycota, or club fungi, featuring basidia and including macroscopic mushrooms such as Agaricus bisporus and rusts that impact agriculture; Mucoromycota, conjugation fungi that reproduce via zygospores, exemplified by bread molds like Rhizopus stolonifer; and Glomeromycota, which form arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses with plant roots, enhancing nutrient uptake in over 80% of land plants.^[71]^[36] These phyla play crucial ecological roles as decomposers of organic matter, mutualistic partners in ecosystems, and opportunistic pathogens affecting humans, animals, and crops.^[72] A basal lineage within Fungi is Chytridiomycota, distinguished by its production of flagellated zoospores, a primitive trait linking it to early fungal evolution and contrasting with the non-motile spores of higher fungi.^[73] Fungi as a whole belong to the supergroup Opisthokonta, positioned phylogenetically as the sister clade to animals (Metazoa), sharing a common ancestor with posterior flagella in some life stages and supporting their divergence around 1 billion years ago based on molecular clock estimates.^[74]^[75] Protists represent a paraphyletic assemblage of predominantly unicellular or colonial eukaryotic microorganisms that do not fit into the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, or Fungi, accounting for the majority of eukaryotic phylogenetic diversity through their polyphyletic nature and inclusion of lineages like algae, protozoa, and slime molds.^[76]^[3] This group comprises roughly 50-60 phyla or major clades, often classified into supergroups based on molecular and ultrastructural traits such as motility mechanisms (e.g., pseudopodia, flagella, or cilia) and specialized organelles; notable examples include Amoebozoa, featuring amoeba-like cells with lobe-shaped pseudopodia such as Amoeba proteus and the social slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum; Excavata, a diverse supergroup with excavated feeding grooves and including parasitic flagellates like Giardia lamblia causing giardiasis; and the SAR clade (Stramenopiles, Alveolates, Rhizaria), which encompasses Chromalveolata subgroups such as diatoms (Bacillariophyta) with silica frustules that form vast phytoplankton blooms contributing to global carbon cycling, and Apicomplexa, non-motile parasites like Plasmodium falciparum responsible for malaria, infecting over 200 million people annually.^[77]^[78]^[79] Protists exhibit varied ecological roles, from primary producers in aquatic food webs to symbionts and pathogens influencing disease dynamics and biodiversity.^[80] As a "junk drawer" category in traditional taxonomy, protists highlight the challenges of eukaryotic classification, with ongoing phylogenomic studies refining their boundaries.^[81]

Phyla in Prokaryotic Domains

Bacterial Phyla

The domain Bacteria encompasses a vast array of prokaryotic microorganisms, with approximately 30 to 50 formally recognized phyla based on cultivated and validated taxa, though metagenomic analyses suggest up to 169 distinct phyla when including uncultured lineages.^[82]^[6] Among these, the phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes dominate in terms of described species diversity and ecological prevalence, accounting for the majority of known bacterial taxa across diverse habitats from soil to human microbiomes.^[83] These phyla exhibit remarkable metabolic versatility, enabling bacteria to thrive in extreme environments and drive global biogeochemical cycles. A defining feature of many bacterial phyla is the distinction between Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell wall architectures, which influences their interactions with environments and hosts. Gram-positive phyla such as Firmicutes and Actinobacteria possess thick peptidoglycan layers, providing structural rigidity and resistance to certain stresses, while Gram-negative phyla like Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes feature outer membranes rich in lipopolysaccharides that confer protection against antibiotics and host defenses.^[84] Metabolic diversity further underscores bacterial adaptations: for instance, the phylum Cyanobacteria specializes in oxygenic phototrophy, using chlorophyll-based photosynthesis to produce oxygen and organic matter, a process central to Earth's oxygenation history.^[85] In contrast, Nitrospirae exemplify chemolithotrophy, oxidizing nitrite to nitrate in a key step of the nitrogen cycle, often in aquatic and soil ecosystems.^[86] Pathogenic potential is evident in phyla like Spirochaetes, where genera such as Treponema (e.g., Treponema pallidum) cause diseases including syphilis through tissue invasion and immune evasion strategies.^[87] Bacterial phyla trace their evolutionary roots to approximately 3.5 billion years ago, with fossil evidence of microbial mats indicating early diversification in Precambrian environments.^[88] This ancient lineage has facilitated critical symbioses, such as those involving the order Rhizobiales within Proteobacteria, which form root nodules in legumes to fix atmospheric nitrogen, enhancing plant growth and soil fertility worldwide.^[89] Such interactions highlight bacteria's role in ecosystem stability and agriculture. Advancements in metagenomics have revealed candidate phyla, including Candidatus Omnitrophica (now classified under Omnitrophota), which are uncultured lineages detected in anaerobic habitats and exhibit dependencies on host interactions for nutrient acquisition.^[90] Additionally, unique staining properties distinguish certain phyla; for example, many Actinobacteria, including Mycobacterium species, display acid-fastness due to mycolic acids in their cell walls, aiding identification in clinical diagnostics for tuberculosis.^[91] These features collectively illustrate the adaptive radiation of bacterial phyla, shaping microbial contributions to planetary health and disease.

Archaeal Phyla

The domain Archaea encompasses approximately 20 recognized phyla, with recent classifications in the Genome Taxonomy Database (GTDB) reporting between 18 and 20 phyla based on genome phylogenies.^[82] These phyla are dominated by Halobacteriota (traditionally Euryarchaeota), which includes methanogenic and halophilic lineages adapted to anaerobic and hypersaline environments; Thermoproteota (traditionally Crenarchaeota), comprising hyperthermophilic species prevalent in geothermal settings; and emerging groups such as Asgardarchaeota, notable for encoding genes resembling those involved in eukaryotic cellular processes like membrane remodeling and actin polymerization.^[92] The vast majority of archaeal lineages remain uncultured—part of the over 99% of environmental prokaryotic diversity that is uncultured—and are characterized primarily through metagenomics and single-amplified genomes, revealing their ecological roles in uncultivable niches.^[93] Archaea possess distinct biochemical traits that set them apart from bacteria, including ether-linked membrane lipids formed by isoprenoid chains bound to a glycerol-1-phosphate backbone, which confer enhanced stability against extreme temperatures, pH, and salinity compared to the ester-linked fatty acids in other domains.^[94] Their multisubunit RNA polymerase exhibits structural and functional homology to eukaryotic RNA polymerase II, sharing core subunits and promoter recognition mechanisms that enable complex transcription regulation akin to eukaryotes, rather than the simpler bacterial sigma-factor system.^[95] These features underscore archaea's intermediate position in prokaryotic-eukaryotic evolution, with phyla delineated via 16S rRNA sequences and concatenated protein phylogenies for robust taxonomic assignment.^[96] Metabolic diversity among archaeal phyla supports their adaptation to niche environments, with methanogenesis—a pathway exclusive to archaea—prevalent in Halobacteriota, where CO₂ and H₂ are converted to methane via unique cofactors like coenzyme M and methanofuran, contributing to global carbon cycling in anaerobic habitats.^[97] For instance, the class Methanobacteria within Halobacteriota performs hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis, generating energy through this catabolic process in sediments and ruminant guts. Halophiles in the same phylum accumulate compatible solutes like ectoine to maintain cellular integrity in salt-saturated conditions, while Thermoproteota members, such as those in the order Sulfolobales, oxidize sulfur compounds at temperatures exceeding 80°C in volcanic pools. Archaea represent the closest prokaryotic relatives to eukaryotes, with Asgardarchaeota emerging as a key phylum harboring over 70 eukaryotic signature proteins involved in vesicle trafficking and cytoskeletal dynamics, suggesting an archaeal ancestor for the eukaryotic host cell.^[98] The 2015 discovery of Lokiarchaeota, integrated into Asgardarchaeota, provided genomic evidence for this proximity, including actin-like and ubiquitin-related genes that bolster endosymbiotic models for eukaryogenesis, where an archaeal cell engulfed an alphaproteobacterium to form the mitochondrion.^[99] Notably, Nitrososphaerota (formerly Thaumarchaeota) uniquely drive aerobic ammonia oxidation in oceanic water columns, influencing marine nitrogen budgets through the enzyme ammonia monooxygenase.^[100]

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Phylum - Definition and Examples - Biology Online Dictionary
May 29, 2023 · Ernst Haeckel coined the term “phylum” in 1866. Literally, phylum means a race or a tribe that's different from others based on some ...
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What is taxonomy? | Natural History Museum
Phylum: A phylum (often called a division by plant and fungi scientists) groups organisms based on a shared overall body plan. For example, Chordata ...
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Plant Taxonomy - Let's Talk Science
Jan 21, 2020 · The term “division” is used for plants and the term “phylum” is used for animals. Some scientists use the word “phylum” for both. Plant ...
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2.1 Plant Taxonomy – The Science of Plants
Plant taxonomy is a hierarchy primarily based on grouping together plants that exhibit structural (phenotypic) similarities.Plant Taxonomy · Binomial Nomenclature · Example Taxonomy Tree
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Animal phyla | The Animal Kingdom: A Very Short Introduction
Here, I recognize 33 animal phyla. Of these, 9 phyla contain well-known animals familiar to almost everybody. A further 4 phyla can be found with a little ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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What's in a Name? Taxonomy Problems Vex Biologists
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[PDF] Basics of Cladistic Analysis - The George Washington University
Phylum (plural, phyla). Class. Order. Family. Genus ... Synthetic and cladistic taxonomy differ from each other primarily in the repeatability of the method.
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[PDF] an exploration of the three major schools of taxonomy using
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(PDF) Acanthocephala in the Journal of Parasitology, 1914-2014
Apr 3, 2016 · Acanthocephala as a phylum (Van Cleave 1941, 1948),. closely associated with the Cestoda. More recently, Petrochenko (1956) devised a system.
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Annelid Diversity: Historical Overview and Future Perspectives - MDPI
Mar 17, 2021 · Although there were also some indications that several of the then considered phyla, such as Sipuncula, Myzostomida, Vestimentifera, ...Annelid Diversity... · 2. Results And Discussion · 2.2. Annelid DiversityMissing: subphylum elevated
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27.2 Features Used to Classify Animals – General Biology
More complex animals (usually those with bilateral symmetry) develop three tissue layers: an inner layer (endoderm), an outer layer (ectoderm), and a middle ...Missing: criteria defining
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Structure and Function | manoa.hawaii.edu/ExploringOurFluidEarth
In the animal kingdom there are two major themes within body plans: symmetry and the organization of tissues and body cavities. It is amazing that out of the ...Missing: criteria defining
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[PDF] Phyla Of The Animal Kingdom
How are animal phyla classified? Animal phyla are classified based on characteristics such as body symmetry, presence of a coelom, type of body cavity ...
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Biological Diversity 7
Flatworms have three tissue layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm and a body plan that is acoelomate and sac-like with a single opening.
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Lab 11
Each phylum shows a body plan that is characteristic or fundamental for all its members, sometimes called a bauplan, German for "basic design".Missing: defining | Show results with:defining
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[PDF] biological systematics and evolutionary theory - D-Scholarship@Pitt
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[PDF] Biology-Definition-Of-Evolutionary-Classification.pdf
morphology alone can be misleading due to convergent evolution, where unrelated species independently evolve similar traits. Recognizing this limitation ...
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Phylogenetics
Disadvantages. Morphological characteristics are more likely to be convergent; Patterns of inheritance of morphological traits not always clear; The fossil ...Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
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What does convergent evolution mean? The interpretation of ...
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Based on a comprehensive survey of the animal kingdom, we find that parasitism has independently evolved at least 223 times in just 15 phyla.3. Results And Discussion · Figure 1 · Figure 2Missing: inflation deflation<|control11|><|separator|>
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Phylum Arthropoda | manoa.hawaii.edu/ExploringOurFluidEarth
The phylum includes more species and more individuals than all other groups of animals combined. Over 85 percent of all known animal species are arthropods (Fig ...Inordinate Fondness For Beetles · Question Set · Aquatic Invertebrate Behavior
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Introduction to Porifera
Sponges are characterized by the possession of a feeding system unique among animals. Poriferans don't have mouths; instead, they have tiny pores in their outer ...
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Cnidaria: More on Morphology
Cnidarians are said to be the simplest organisms at the tissue grade of organization; their cells are organized into true tissues.
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Molluscan Morphology
All molluscs have a tissue that covers the animal called the mantle, which is sometimes involved in shell secretion and respiration.
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More on Arthropod Morphology
### Key Characteristics of Arthropoda, Exoskeleton, and Jointed Appendages
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Morphology of the Chordata
All chordates share four basic features. Chordates derive their name from one of their synapomorphies, or derived features indicating their common ancestry.
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[PDF] Using Bioinformatics Tools to Explore Symbiotic Associations ...
Aug 5, 2023 · Phoronida etc. whose genome has been understudied in retroelements study. This and other studies. e.g. 25,54 provides a foundation of ...
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(PDF) Bryozoan genera Fenestrulina and Microporella no longer ...
Bryozoans are a moderately diverse, mostly marine phylum with a fossil record extending to the Early Ordovician. Compared to other phyla, little is known ...
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More on Morphology of the Plantae
major extant divisions. The table is linked to each of the divisions pictured. Plant cells have a cell wall, large central vacuole, and plasmodesmata. Like ...
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Plantae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
There are approximately 500,000 plant species, which are classified into 12 phyla or divisions based largely on reproductive characteristics. The vascular or ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Green Algae and the Origins of Multicellularity in the Plant Kingdom
The green lineage of chlorophyte algae and streptophytes form a large and diverse clade with multiple independent transitions to produce multicellular ...
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The Plant Kingdom – Introduction to Living Systems
The Major Divisions of Land Plants. Land plants are classified into two major groups according to the absence or presence of vascular tissue, as detailed in ...
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The Plant Kingdom – Introductory Biology
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A life history involving alternation of two developmentally associated, multicellular generations (sporophyte and gametophyte) is an autapomorphy of ...
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Introduction to the Rhodophyta
Red algae are red because of the presence of the pigment phycoerythrin; this pigment reflects red light and absorbs blue light.
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The Fungal Tree of Life: from Molecular Systematics to Genome ...
In the current classification we recognize 8 phyla, 12 subphyla, and 46 classes within the kingdom. The ancestor of fungi is inferred to be zoosporic, and ...
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Fungi (Kingdom) - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The kingdom Fungi contains five major phyla: Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Glomeromycota. Fungi are a highly complex group of ...
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Fungal evolution: diversity, taxonomy and phylogeny of the Fungi
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Fungal diversity, evolution, and classification - ScienceDirect.com
Jun 9, 2025 · Over 97% of the roughly 155,000 described (by which we mean 'currently accepted') species of Fungi occur in just two phyla: the Ascomycota (99, ...
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Loss of the flagellum happened only once in the fungal lineage
Members of Chytridiomycota are considered to be the basal lineage of fungi since, like metazoans, they use glycogen to store energy and have flagellated spores ...
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Divergent trajectories predate the origins of animals and fungi
Nov 7, 2022 · Animals, fungi, and their closest protist relatives comprise the clade Opisthokonta. Although they are comparatively closely related, ...
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Opisthokonta - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Opisthokonta includes both animals (Metazoa) and true Fungi, which evolved from protistan ancestors independently of each other.
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Protist - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Protists are a polyphyletic assortment of mostly unicellular organisms that account for the bulk of eukaryotic diversity. Much of this diversity is unseen, ...
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The kingdom PROTISTA and its 45 phyla - ScienceDirect
The kingdom PROTISTA, a group of 'lower' eukaryotes, includes 45 phyla, which are grouped into 18 supraphyletic assemblages.Missing: polyphyletic | Show results with:polyphyletic
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Intermediary Metabolism in Protists: a Sequence-based View of ...
Protists are a polyphyletic assortment of mostly unicellular organisms that account for the bulk of eukaryotic diversity. Much of this diversity is unseen, ...
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Protista - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The protist kingdom is a paraphyletic group that comprises three major groups: algae, flagellate fungi and protozoa [50]. Since protozoa cover a broad range of ...
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The New Tree of Eukaryotes - ScienceDirect.com
The eukaryote Tree of Life (eToL) represents the phylogeny of all eukaryotic lineages, with the vast bulk of this diversity comprising microbial 'protists'.Missing: URL | Show results with:URL
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Protists with Uncertain Phylogenetic Affiliations for Resolving the ...
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GTDB release 10: a complete and systematic taxonomy for 715 230 ...
Oct 22, 2025 · The number of bacterial phyla had been gradually increasing until R09-RS220 but then decreased from 175 to 169 in R10-RS226 due to merging of ...
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Microbiota in health and diseases | Signal Transduction ... - Nature
Apr 23, 2022 · In general, the major bacteria present in oral microbiota are Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Fusobacteria.
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Bacterial Phyla - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Introduction. Today at least 89 bacterial and 20 archaeal phyla are recognized by small subunit ribosomal RNA databases, although the true phyla count is ...
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On the origin of oxygenic photosynthesis and Cyanobacteria
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A Nitrospira metagenome illuminates the physiology and evolution ...
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Treponema pallidum, the syphilis spirochete: making a living as a ...
Jun 1, 2017 · The pathogenic treponemes are uncultivatable, slow-growing microorganisms with identical flat-wave morphologies. They poorly tolerate ...
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Evidence of 3.5-billion-year-old bacterial ecosystems found in ...
Nov 12, 2013 · "Complex mat-forming microbial communities likely existed almost 3.5 billion years ago." The team proposes that the sedimentary structures arose ...
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Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Symbiotic ... - Frontiers
Mar 8, 2018 · Legumes are able to form a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria called rhizobia. The result of this symbiosis is to ...
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Hyperactive nanobacteria with host-dependent traits pervade ...
Mar 16, 2023 · Candidate bacterial phylum Omnitrophota has not been isolated and is poorly understood. We analysed 72 newly sequenced and 349 existing ...
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Actinobacteria - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Acid-fast staining (Ziehl–Neelsen – the basis for Ziehl–Neelsen staining is the presence of mycolic acids in the cell walls of acid-fast organisms. The waxy ...
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Genome Taxonomy Database: GTDB
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Sizing Up the Uncultured Microbial Majority | mSystems
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Biosynthesis of archaeal membrane ether lipids - PMC
This review describes the current knowledge of the biosynthetic pathway of archaeal ether lipids; insights on the stability and robustness of archaeal lipid ...
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Archaeal RNA polymerase - PMC - NIH
... similarities between archaeal RNAP and eukaryotic Pol II exist on many levels. Therefore, archaeal RNAP could be an excellent model system for dissecting ...
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GTDB: an ongoing census of bacterial and archaeal diversity ...
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Model Organisms To Study Methanogenesis, a Uniquely Archaeal ...
Jul 17, 2023 · Methanogenic archaea are the only organisms that produce CH4 as part of their energy-generating metabolism.
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Cultured Asgard Archaea Shed Light on Eukaryogenesis
Apr 16, 2020 · Many Asgard eukaryotic-like genes encoded membrane-remodeling proteins, which promoted the hypothesis that eukaryotes evolved from a complex ...
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Lokiarchaeota Marks the Transition between the Archaeal and ...
A recent study (Spang et al. 2015) has reported the discovery of a novel archaeal phylum, Lokiarchaeota, in marine sediments collected near a hydrothermal vent ...
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Novel insights into the Thaumarchaeota in the deepest oceans
Marine Group I (MGI) Thaumarchaeota, which play key roles in the global biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen and carbon (ammonia oxidizers), thrive in the aphotic ...