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Pinkerton

The Pinkerton National Detective Agency, founded in 1850 by Scottish immigrant Allan Pinkerton (1819–1884), originated as the first private detective agency in the United States, initially focused on combating counterfeiters and providing railway security in the Chicago area.^[1] Pinkerton, a former cooper and abolitionist who had immigrated to Illinois in 1842 after fleeing political agitation in Glasgow, built the firm on principles of "We Never Sleep," emphasizing vigilance and undercover operations that set precedents for modern private investigation.^[2] During the American Civil War, the agency supplied Union intelligence services, including espionage networks that aided in thwarting Confederate plots and protecting President Abraham Lincoln.^[3] Postwar, Pinkerton agents pursued high-profile criminals such as train robbers and outlaws, contributing to the capture of figures like the Reno Gang and enhancing corporate security for railroads and express companies.^[4] The agency's expansion into guarding industrial interests led to significant controversies, particularly its role in labor disputes where it infiltrated unions and provided armed strikebreakers, culminating in violent clashes like the 1892 Homestead Strike against Carnegie Steel, which resulted in deaths on both sides and prompted the Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893 restricting federal contracts with private agencies.^[5] These practices drew widespread criticism for prioritizing employer interests over workers' rights, embedding Pinkerton in the era's tensions between capital and labor. Today, rebranded as Pinkerton, the firm operates globally as a provider of risk management, protective services, and security consulting, tracing its legacy to Allan Pinkerton's foundational innovations while adapting to contemporary threats.^[6]

Pinkerton detective agency

Founding and early operations

Allan Pinkerton immigrated from Scotland to the United States in 1842, escaping arrest for his involvement in the Chartist movement, and settled in Dundee, Illinois, where he worked as a cooper manufacturing barrels.^[7] In 1847, while scouting timber along the Fox River for barrel staves, he uncovered a counterfeiters' camp, tracked the perpetrators, and facilitated their arrest, which highlighted his aptitude for detection and led to his recruitment into local law enforcement as a deputy sheriff in Cook County.^[1]^[7] These exploits positioned him to contribute to Chicago's nascent policing structure, where he addressed gaps in official investigations amid the city's rapid growth and rising crime on the frontier.^[7] Pinkerton formally established the Pinkerton National Detective Agency in Chicago in 1850, opening its initial office at 80 Washington Street to offer private investigative services untainted by the political corruption prevalent in public police forces.^[1] The agency adopted the motto "We Never Sleep" and an unblinking eye logo to symbolize perpetual surveillance and reliability, drawing from Pinkerton's emphasis on tireless pursuit of criminals.^[4] Early operations centered on the American Midwest's expanding rail networks and commerce, targeting counterfeiters, burglars, and thieves who exploited vulnerabilities in express shipments and frontier trade.^[1] A hallmark of the agency's initial methods was the use of undercover operatives to penetrate criminal circles, yielding successes in dismantling forgery rings and recovering stolen goods from express companies.^[1] In 1856, Pinkerton hired Kate Warne, a 23-year-old widow, as the first female detective in the United States, enabling investigations into domestic and social spheres where women could operate discreetly and access information denied to male agents.^[8] This innovation expanded the agency's toolkit, contributing to its reputation for thorough, evidence-based resolutions in an era lacking formalized federal policing.^[8]

Civil War era

In 1861, shortly after the outbreak of the American Civil War, Allan Pinkerton was recruited by Union General George B. McClellan to lead intelligence operations for the Union Army, operating under the alias "Major E.J. Allen" as head of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency's newly formed Secret Service.^[7]^[3] Pinkerton's agency shifted focus from private investigations to federal espionage, providing scouts, spies, and counterintelligence support primarily in the eastern theater.^[9] Pinkerton's operatives played a key role in thwarting the alleged Baltimore Plot, a conspiracy uncovered in February 1861 to assassinate President-elect Abraham Lincoln during his inaugural train journey through Baltimore.^[10] Agency detective Kate Warne, posing undercover, gathered evidence of secessionist plans involving armed mobs, prompting Lincoln to travel incognito through the city on February 23, 1861, with Pinkerton agents providing bodyguard services en route to Washington, D.C.^[10]^[11] Subsequent plots against Lincoln were also reportedly foiled by Pinkerton agents, who continued personal security details for the president.^[3] The agency established an informant network penetrating Confederate territories in the South, employing around two dozen agents—including female operatives like Warne and Harriet Thayer—for reconnaissance, sabotage, and intelligence gathering on enemy movements and fortifications.^[12] Notable successes included infiltrations yielding tactical details, such as agent Timothy Webster's reports from Richmond in 1861-1862.^[13] However, Pinkerton's estimates of Confederate troop strengths were systematically inflated—often doubling or tripling actual figures, as in the 1862 Peninsula Campaign where he reported over 100,000 troops opposite McClellan's forces when Confederate records indicate roughly 55,000—contributing to McClellan's excessive caution and operational delays.^[9]^[13] These inaccuracies stemmed from reliance on unverified informant reports and a conservative methodology prioritizing worst-case scenarios over empirical cross-verification, undermining Union strategy despite the network's breadth.^[9]^[14] Pinkerton resigned from intelligence duties in 1862 following McClellan's removal, though the agency continued limited wartime contracts.^[9]

Innovations and notable cases

The Pinkerton National Detective Agency pioneered the use of systematic mugshot collections known as the "Rogues' Gallery," introduced in 1870 as the first comprehensive database of criminal photographs, descriptions, and case files, which facilitated identification and tracking of suspects across jurisdictions.^[1]^[15] This innovation centralized criminal records in an era lacking national police coordination, enabling operatives to cross-reference known offenders' modus operandi and aliases, a practice that prefigured modern forensic databases.^[3] The agency also implemented rigorous training protocols for detectives, including mentorship under experienced operatives, undercover techniques, and standardized investigative methods emphasizing evidence gathering over confrontation, which influenced emerging public policing standards by promoting professionalization and record-keeping discipline.^[16]^[17] In notable cases, Pinkerton operatives pursued the Reno Gang following its October 6, 1866, robbery of an Ohio & Mississippi Railroad train in Seymour, Indiana—the first documented peacetime train heist in U.S. history, yielding approximately $15,000 (equivalent to over $300,000 today)—deploying agents to infiltrate and apprehend members, contributing to captures that disrupted the gang's operations despite local vigilante involvement.^[18]^[19] The agency's railroad security contracts, beginning with the Illinois Central in 1855, expanded to protect express shipments nationwide, recovering significant stolen property through persistent surveillance, though exact 19th-century figures remain tied to client-specific reports rather than aggregated public statistics.^[20] Pinkerton's pursuit of Jesse James and his gang, initiated in 1874 at the behest of railroad firms, exemplified operational risks, culminating in a January 25, 1875, raid on the James family farm near Clay County, Missouri, where agents hurled a incendiary device intended to flush out suspects, inadvertently killing James's half-brother Archie (age 16) and severely injuring his mother Zerelda with shrapnel, an event that intensified public backlash but underscored the agency's commitment to high-stakes enforcement against elusive outlaws.^[21] Despite such setbacks, these efforts highlighted Pinkerton's role in advancing private-sector countermeasures to post-Civil War banditry, including international extensions for fugitive tracking.^[4]

Labor disputes and controversies

From the 1860s onward, railroads and manufacturers increasingly hired the Pinkerton National Detective Agency to infiltrate labor unions suspected of planning sabotage, such as dynamiting tracks or bridges, in response to rising incidents of industrial violence during economic downturns. Pinkerton agents posed as workers to gather intelligence on union activities, which often blurred the line between legitimate organizing and criminal acts like arson or murder, enabling employers to preempt disruptions that had previously caused widespread property damage and operational halts.^[22] This approach yielded results in cases where agent testimony exposed organized threats, though it drew criticism for relying on potentially coerced or incentivized informants, with court outcomes varying based on the strength of corroborating evidence beyond infiltration reports.^[23] A prominent example was the agency's role in the Molly Maguires investigations in Pennsylvania's anthracite coal regions, where detective James McParland infiltrated the Ancient Order of Hibernians, a group accused of orchestrating assassinations of mine officials and foremen between 1866 and 1876. McParland's undercover work from 1873 to 1876 provided key testimony leading to the 1877 trials, resulting in 20 convictions for murders and related crimes, with 10 executions carried out on June 21, 1877, known as "Black Thursday."^[24] While these prosecutions dismantled a network responsible for at least 16 documented killings, detractors argued the trials were biased due to prosecution by company lawyers and lack of Irish Catholic juries, though appellate reviews upheld most verdicts based on multiple witness accounts and physical evidence linking defendants to the violence.^[23] Pinkerton's efforts here correlated with a subsequent decline in targeted killings in the region, substantiating claims of effective sabotage prevention amid broader union unrest. The agency's confrontational tactics peaked during the 1892 Homestead Strike at Carnegie Steel's Pennsylvania mill, where approximately 300 Pinkerton agents were transported by barge on July 6 to protect the facility and enable non-union operations amid a lockout of 3,800 workers demanding wage recognition. The agents' arrival sparked a battle lasting several hours, with strikers firing first from shore positions, leading to seven worker deaths, three agent fatalities, and dozens wounded on both sides before the Pinkertons surrendered and were evacuated under militia protection.^[25] This clash, involving gunfire and improvised explosives from workers, highlighted mutual escalations—agents armed with rifles but under orders to avoid initiation—yet fueled public outrage over private forces clashing with communities, prompting Pennsylvania Governor Robert E. Pattison to deploy the National Guard and contributing to the strike's failure after four months.^[26] The incident's fallout included the Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893, which prohibited the federal government from employing the agency or similar private entities for strikebreaking, reflecting congressional concerns over monopolistic corporate power despite no judicial finding of disproportionate Pinkerton aggression in subsequent inquiries.^[27] Overall, Pinkerton's interventions in these disputes preserved industrial assets against verifiable sabotage attempts but often intensified conflicts, with violence attributable to striker blockades and agent reinforcements alike, as evidenced by contemporaneous reports and legal records.^[25]

Modern operations and legacy

Following World War I, the Pinkerton agency's prominence in criminal investigations waned as local police forces and federal entities, including the nascent Federal Bureau of Investigation established in 1908 and expanded thereafter, absorbed many of its traditional duties in pursuit of interstate crime and espionage.^[15] ^[28] By the mid-20th century, the firm pivoted toward corporate security, protective services, and risk management, reflecting broader shifts where government oversight supplanted private detective work for sensitive cases.^[29] In 1983, Pinkerton was acquired by American Brands, a tobacco conglomerate, which integrated it into broader operations before further mergers, including with California Plant Protection in 1988.^[30] Securitas AB purchased the company in 1999 for $384 million, reorienting it as Pinkerton Consulting & Investigations—a subsidiary focused on corporate risk rather than standalone detection.^[31] ^[32] Under Securitas, Pinkerton has expanded into a global provider of integrated security solutions, emphasizing preventive strategies over reactive investigations. Contemporary operations center on risk advisory, executive protection, and asset safeguarding for multinational clients, with services including vetted close-protection teams, travel security assessments, and customized threat mitigation.^[33] ^[34] The firm produces SCOUT intelligence reports, offering real-time geopolitical and operational risk analyses to inform corporate decision-making.^[35] U.S. expansions include new offices in Detroit in 2016, serving as Michigan headquarters within the historic Globe Tobacco Building, and San Diego in 2015 to bolster West Coast coverage.^[36] ^[37] Pinkerton's legacy endures in establishing benchmarks for private security, such as systematic surveillance, undercover infiltration, and centralized intelligence—techniques that informed early federal law enforcement protocols and persist in contemporary policing training.^[38] ^[39] Recent controversies highlight operational tensions: in April 2023, Pinkerton agents, contracted by Wizards of the Coast, visited a YouTuber's home to recover leaked Magic: The Gathering cards under a court order; the creator voluntarily surrendered the materials without reported forcible entry or legal violation, though the incident drew scrutiny for evoking the agency's labor-history associations.^[40] ^[41] Separately, in 2019, Pinkerton initiated a trademark infringement suit against Take-Two Interactive and Rockstar Games over the depiction of antagonistic Pinkerton agents in Red Dead Redemption 2, claiming dilution of brand goodwill; both parties mutually dismissed claims later that year, resolving the matter without admission of liability.^[42] ^[43] These episodes underscore Pinkerton's adaptation to intellectual property recovery and brand defense in a digital era, distinct from its 19th-century enforcement role.

Notable people

Allan Pinkerton

Allan Pinkerton was born on August 25, 1819, in the Gorbals neighborhood of Glasgow, Scotland, to a family of limited means; his father, a police sergeant and weaver, died young after being wounded in the Chartist riots of 1839, events tied to working-class demands for political reform.^[44]^[45] Pinkerton, trained as a cooper (barrel-maker), became involved in radical Chartist activities, prompting his flight to the United States in 1842 to evade persecution; he settled initially in Dundee Township, Illinois, where he continued his trade while embracing the era's anti-slavery sentiments.^[7]^[46] As an outspoken abolitionist, Pinkerton aided fugitive slaves via the Underground Railroad starting around 1844, using his isolated cabin near the Fox River as a safe house and leveraging his wilderness knowledge for secretive transport routes; this early commitment to covert operations foreshadowed his later detective pursuits, rooted in moral opposition to slavery rather than mere opportunism.^[7] His experiences honed practical skills in surveillance and evasion, which he applied to tracking counterfeiters and thieves in the 1840s, earning him appointment as Chicago's first full-time detective in 1850.^[4] Pinkerton authored numerous books blending memoir, true crime accounts, and promotional narratives on detection, including The Spy of the Rebellion (1865), a detailed recounting of Union intelligence efforts during the Civil War, and Thirty Years a Detective (1884), which chronicled his investigative methods and celebrated systematic sleuthing as a professional craft.^[47]^[48] These works, while self-aggrandizing, disseminated innovations in tradecraft such as meticulous shadowing techniques, informant networks, and disguise protocols, influencing modern espionage by emphasizing empirical observation over intuition.^[49] He died on July 1, 1884, in Chicago at age 64, following a street slip that caused him to bite his tongue severely, leading to a gangrenous infection that proved fatal despite medical intervention; contemporary reports varied, with some attributing decline to malaria, but the injury's complications are most consistently documented.^[50]^[51] Pinkerton's sons, William A. (1846–1923) and Robert, assumed leadership of his detective enterprise post-mortem, professionalizing and geographically expanding its operations through the late 19th century.^[7]^[4]

Other individuals

William Allan Pinkerton (April 7, 1846 – December 11, 1923), elder son of the agency's founder, entered the business at age 15 after limited schooling and advanced to general superintendent, overseeing operations from Chicago with a focus on western U.S. expansion and high-profile investigations.^[52]^[53] Following his father's death in 1884, he co-led the agency alongside his brother Robert, emphasizing systematic crime-solving methods amid growing demand for protective services.^[54] Robert Allan Pinkerton (December 2, 1848 – August 17, 1907), the younger son, directed the New York branch and spearheaded international outreach, including establishing European connections that broadened the agency's scope beyond domestic cases by the late 19th century.^[55]^[53] He personally supervised recoveries like the 1870s theft of $200,000 in bonds from a Manhattan bank, leveraging on-site expertise to resolve complex financial crimes.^[56]

Places

In the United States

Pinkerton Academy, located in Derry, New Hampshire, is an independent, non-profit secondary school founded in 1815 as a co-educational institution with an initial endowment from brothers John and James Pinkerton to promote education and moral development.^[57]^[58] The academy opened on December 4, 1815, initially serving male students before expanding, and today enrolls approximately 3,100 students in grades 9 through 12, supported by a staff of 530 employees, making it the largest independent high school in New Hampshire.^[59] Its naming derives from the local benefactors John (Major) and James (Elder) Pinkerton, with no historical connection to Allan Pinkerton, the Scottish immigrant who founded the detective agency decades later in 1850, as the school's establishment predates his arrival in the United States in 1842.^[57]^[1] Other U.S. locations bearing the name Pinkerton include minor geographical features such as roads and historical sites, but none with significant population or direct ties to the detective agency's legacy. For instance, Pinkerton, an unincorporated area in Shasta County, California, represents a sparsely documented rural community with negligible recorded population in census data, likely originating from early settler naming conventions unrelated to the agency's operations.

In Canada and elsewhere

Pinkerton is an unincorporated rural community within the Municipality of Brockton in Bruce County, Ontario, Canada, situated along the Mud River.^[60] The area was first settled in the 1850s, with initial squatting occurring in 1853 when John Shennan began constructing a sawmill and gristmill before selling the undeveloped site to David Pinkerton.^[60] A log schoolhouse was erected in 1856, and a post office opened in 1860 under postmaster Matthew Pinkerton, who served until 1866.^[60] By the late 19th century, Pinkerton had developed into a modest business center, featuring a hotel established in 1861 (which burned down on Good Friday, 1971), blacksmith shops, a wagon and tinsmith operation, and various mills including saw, grist, flour, and shingle facilities powered by the river.^[60]^[61] Notable residents included Senator J.J. Donnelly, who served as reeve of Greenock Township in 1897–1898.^[60] The community, one of the earliest in Greenock Township, remains rural and quiet today, anchored by Pinkerton United Church and an antique store, with the historic gristmill—among Ontario's last water-powered operations—ceasing function in 1999 after nearly 150 years.^[61] Beyond Canada, instances of places named Pinkerton are scarce and lack significant modern development; the surname's Scottish origins trace to a historical site near Dunbar in Berwickshire, deriving from Old English terms for a butler's estate, but no prominent contemporary locales exist there or in regions like Australia.^[62]

Arts and entertainment

Fictional characters

In the video game Red Dead Redemption 2, released October 26, 2018, by Rockstar Games, Pinkerton agents function as primary antagonists, tasked with eradicating the Van der Linde outlaw gang on behalf of industrialist Leviticus Cornwall and federal authorities. Key figures include Special Agent Andrew Milton, who interrogates gang members and deploys forces to provoke confrontations, embodying the agency's late-19th-century reputation for aggressive pursuit of criminals and labor agitators.^[63] The depiction drew real-world scrutiny from the modern Pinkerton firm, which issued cease-and-desist demands over the portrayal of its historical predecessor as ruthless enforcers.^[63] In Sidney Lumet's 1974 film adaptation of Agatha Christie's Murder on the Orient Express, Cyrus Hardman—portrayed by Martin Balsam—is a Pinkerton operative hired by the victim, Samuel Ratchett, for bodyguard duties aboard the train. Revealed as an undercover investigator, Hardman provides crucial testimony involving a missing child case, leveraging the agency's expertise in surveillance and evidence gathering to aid Hercule Poirot's resolution of the murder.^[64] Pinkerton detectives also appear as hired muscle in the HBO series Deadwood (2004–2006), where they serve mining tycoon George Hearst by intimidating competitors and suppressing dissent in the titular South Dakota camp, reflecting fictionalized accounts of the agency's corporate security roles during labor unrest.^[65]

Music and albums

Pinkerton is the second studio album by the American rock band Weezer, released on September 24, 1996, by DGC Records.^[66] The title references Lieutenant B.F. Pinkerton, the philandering American naval officer from Giacomo Puccini's opera Madama Butterfly, a character frontman Rivers Cuomo identified with during a period of personal isolation and recovery from injury, viewing parallels in themes of transient romance and emotional detachment.^[67] Unlike Weezer's debut, which featured accessible power pop, Pinkerton emphasizes abrasive guitars, dynamic shifts, and confessional lyrics exploring loneliness, promiscuity, and vulnerability, drawn directly from Cuomo's private journals.^[68] Commercially, the album underperformed relative to expectations, selling 47,000 copies in its debut week and reaching a peak of number 19 on the Billboard 200 chart.^[66] Initial critical and fan reception was largely negative, exemplified by Rolling Stone readers ranking it the third-worst album of 1996 for its perceived excess and lack of polish.^[69] Singles "El Scorcho" and "The Good Life" received limited radio play, contributing to its status as a flop at the time.^[70] In subsequent years, Pinkerton gained cult following and critical reevaluation for its unflinching honesty, influencing emo and confessional alternative rock; publications like Rolling Stone later hailed it as essential.^[68] By 2016, it earned RIAA platinum certification, denoting over 1 million units sold in the United States.^[71] No other albums or songs titled Pinkerton have attained similar prominence in music history.

Other uses

The Pinkerton Foundation, an independent grantmaking organization established in 1966 by Robert A. Pinkerton—former chairman and CEO of Pinkerton's, Inc.—funds community-based initiatives for children, youth, and families in economically disadvantaged New York City neighborhoods, emphasizing after-school programs, career readiness, education, and alternatives to youth detention with annual grants exceeding several million dollars from assets of approximately $94 million.^[72] The Pinkerton Tobacco Company, founded in 1904 by John W. Pinkerton in Owensboro, Kentucky, produces chewing and moist snuff tobacco products under brands such as America's Best Chew, maintaining a focus on quality-sourced leaf tobacco despite later acquisitions by international firms.^[73]^[74]

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[56]
Securing the Vault: Pinkerton's Historic Role in Banking Safety
Jun 11, 2025 · ... burglars, sneak thieves, counterfeiters, forgers, and the oft-feared masked hold-up robbers. Ever justice-minded, Pinkerton's goal was to ...
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History - Pinkerton Academy
Pinkerton Academy was founded as an independent day and boarding school and generously endowed by brothers Major John and Elder James Pinkerton.
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Pinkerton Academy History: Founding, Timeline, and Milestones
The academy opened on December 4, 1815, as an all-male institution with an endowment of $16,000 by John Pinkerton "for the purpose of promoting piety and ...<|separator|>
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About Pinkerton Academy | Derry, NH - Pinkerton Academy
Approximately 3,100 students attend the Academy. The school's staff includes 530 employees. Pinkerton is a private, non-profit corporation. A head of school ...
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Pinkerton - Municipality of Brockton
The scenic land around Pinkerton was settled in the 1850s when early occupants built a quaint village with a saw and grist mill.
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History of the County of Bruce, Ontario, Canada Township of Greenock
The village of Pinkerton may claim priority over any other in the township as to the year when it began to take form as a business centre. It is prettily ...
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Pinkerton Family History - FamilySearch
Pinkerton Name Meaning. Scottish and northern Irish: habitational name from a place near Dunbar, which is from Scots pincern 'butler' ...
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The real Pinkertons aren't happy with 'Red Dead Redemption 2'
Jan 15, 2019 · The Pinkertons loom large as virtual adversaries in Red Dead Redemption 2, but now they're involved in a very real legal tussle over the ...
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Pinkerton Detective - TV Tropes
Founded in the 1850s by Allan Pinkerton, the Pinkertons were often hired by corporations such as the railroad companies to investigate crimes against them and ...
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The Pinkertons in Myth and History
In The Long Riders (1980) and The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2007), the Pinkertons chase down the James-Younger gang on behalf of ...
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Weezer's 'Pinkerton' Turns 20: Why the Landmark, Raw Album Wasn ...
Sep 24, 2016 · Released 20 years ago today (Sept. 24, 1996), Pinkerton sold just 47,000 copies in its first week and peaked at No. 19 on the Billboard 200.<|separator|>
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'Pinkerton': How Weezer Made A Masterpiece - uDiscover Music
Simply put, both Madama Butterfly and Pinkerton are about men who've done heinous things to the women in their lives. Madama Butterfly ends with Butterfly ...Missing: inspiration | Show results with:inspiration
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How Weezer's 'Pinkerton' Went From Embarrassing to Essential
Sep 23, 2016 · He began channeling his feelings into the follow up record: a Madame Butterfly–inspired science-fiction rock opera. Dubbed Songs from the ...
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Sept. 24 in Music History: Weezer released 'Pinkerton' - Play
Rolling Stone readers voted it the third-worst album of 1996 — but it has garnered ...
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Weezer : Pinkerton (Deluxe Edition) - Treble Zine
Nov 4, 2010 · Critically, the album was met with a bit of a lukewarm reception. And its singles, “El Scorcho” and “The Good Life,” despite maximum earworm ...
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Weezer's Classic "Pinkerton" Earns Platinum Honor In United States
Sep 19, 2016 · The certification confirms 1 million in US units. Under the terms of the RIAA's albums program, each unit is equal to 1 album sale, 10 track ...
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The Pinkerton Foundation - The Pinkerton Foundation
Dedicated to improving the lives of young people in low-income neighborhoods throughout New York City by helping them develop the skills, self-reliance and ...Grant Guidelines · About Us · About the Foundation · About Youth Programs
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Pinkerton Promise | America's Best Chewing Tobacco
In 1904, John W. Pinkerton launched America's Best Chew to deliver the world's freshest, most satisfying chew. His commitment to quality remains our promise.
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Pinkerton Tobacco Company - Smokeless Tobacco Wiki - Fandom
The Pinkerton Tobacco Company is an American manufacturer of both chewing tobacco and dipping tobacco based in Owensboro, KY. The company was founded by ...