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Projective Hilbert space

In mathematics and physics, the projective Hilbert space associated with a complex Hilbert space H is the set of equivalence classes of non-zero vectors in H, where two vectors \psi and \phi are considered equivalent if \psi = c \phi for some non-zero complex scalar c \in \mathbb{C}^*.^[1] These equivalence classes, often called rays or one-dimensional subspaces, form the projective Hilbert space \mathbb{P}(H), which generalizes the finite-dimensional complex projective space \mathbb{CP}^n to infinite dimensions. This structure arises naturally in the foundations of quantum mechanics, where pure quantum states are represented not by vectors in H but by rays in \mathbb{P}(H), as overall normalization and global phase factors have no physical significance and do not affect measurement probabilities via the Born rule.^[2] The space \mathbb{P}(H) inherits a natural geometry from H, including a Fubini-Study metric that induces a Kähler structure, enabling the formulation of quantum dynamics as Hamiltonian flows on this manifold. In infinite dimensions, \mathbb{P}(H) requires careful definition of topologies—such as the quotient topology or weak topologies—to ensure measurability and continuity of quantum operations, addressing challenges absent in finite-dimensional cases. Key applications include geometric quantization, where \mathbb{P}(H) serves as a phase space for classical-like descriptions of quantum evolution, and the study of projective unitary representations of symmetry groups in quantum theory.^[3]

Mathematical Foundations

Hilbert Spaces and Rays

A Hilbert space is defined as a complete inner product space over the complex numbers, meaning it is a vector space equipped with an inner product that induces a norm, and every Cauchy sequence converges within the space.^[4] In the context of quantum mechanics, Hilbert spaces are typically taken to be separable, ensuring a countable orthonormal basis exists, which facilitates the representation of physical systems with discrete and continuous spectra.^[5] In quantum mechanics, the state of a physical system is represented by a vector ψ in the Hilbert space, subject to the normalization condition ‖ψ‖ = 1, where the norm is derived from the inner product ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1.^[6] This normalization ensures the vector lies on the unit sphere in the Hilbert space, but physical observables depend only on directions rather than specific vector representatives. A ray in the Hilbert space is the one-dimensional subspace generated by a non-zero vector ψ, consisting of all scalar multiples of the form { c \psi \mid c \in \mathbb{C} \setminus {0} }. In quantum mechanics, these rays capture the physically equivalent states, as overall scaling and global phase factors have no physical significance.^[7] For example, in the finite-dimensional Hilbert space ℂ^n, rays correspond to lines through the origin, with each ray intersecting the unit sphere S^{2n-1} in a circle, representing distinct directions modulo phase and scaling.^[7] Hilbert spaces were formalized by John von Neumann in the 1920s and 1930s as the mathematical foundation for quantum mechanics, building on earlier work by David Hilbert and others to rigorously describe infinite-dimensional systems.^[4] The projective Hilbert space, to be detailed later, emerges as the quotient of these rays under equivalence.

Equivalence Relations and Quotient Construction

The projective Hilbert space arises from the Hilbert space H through an equivalence relation that identifies vectors differing only by a non-zero complex scalar, reflecting the physical indistinguishability of quantum states under \mathbb{C}^* transformations. Specifically, two nonzero vectors \psi, \phi \in H \setminus \{0\} are equivalent, denoted \psi \sim \phi, if there exists \lambda \in \mathbb{C}^* such that \phi = \lambda \psi. This relation partitions H \setminus \{0\} into equivalence classes, each corresponding to a one-dimensional subspace or "ray" in H. The projective Hilbert space, denoted \mathrm{PH}(H), is then defined as the quotient set \mathrm{PH}(H) = (H \setminus \{0\}) / \sim, where elements are equivalence classes [\psi] = \{\lambda \psi \mid \lambda \in \mathbb{C}^*\}.^[8] An equivalent construction focuses on the unit sphere S(H) = \{\psi \in H \mid \|\psi\| = 1\} in H, which is a complete metric space under the norm topology. The group U(1) acts freely and continuously on S(H) via multiplication by unit complex scalars, and \mathrm{PH}(H) is the orbit space S(H) / U(1), inheriting the quotient topology. In this topology, a set U \subset \mathrm{PH}(H) is open if its preimage under the quotient map \pi: S(H) \to \mathrm{PH}(H), defined by \pi(\psi) = [\psi], is open in S(H). This ensures that \mathrm{PH}(H) is a topological space where convergence of sequences [\psi_n] \to [\psi] corresponds to the existence of phases \lambda_n \in U(1) such that \lambda_n \psi_n \to \psi in the norm of H.^[8]^[9] For a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space H, the quotient \mathrm{PH}(H) is Hausdorff and well-behaved topologically. The Hausdorff property follows from the compactness of U(1), which implies that the quotient map \pi separates distinct orbits: for distinct [\psi] and [\phi], there exist disjoint open neighborhoods in S(H) that are saturated under the U(1)-action, projecting to disjoint opens in \mathrm{PH}(H). Moreover, since S(H) is second-countable (as H is separable), the quotient topology on \mathrm{PH}(H) is also second-countable, making it a metrizable space without pathologies like non-separated points. This construction yields a locally compact Hausdorff space that serves as the state space in quantum mechanics.^[9] Unlike the real projective space \mathbb{RP}^n, which quotients \mathbb{R}^{n+1} \setminus \{0\} by positive scalar multiplication \mathbb{R}^+, the complex structure of \mathrm{PH}(H) involves the multiplicative group \mathbb{C}^* rather than \mathbb{R}^*, leading to a space with distinct geometric properties such as complex dimension and Kähler potential (though the metric is addressed elsewhere). This emphasis on non-zero complex scalars ensures that \mathrm{PH}(H) captures the phase invariance inherent to quantum superpositions, distinguishing it from real projective geometries.^[8]

Geometric and Topological Structure

Projective Space as a Manifold

In the finite-dimensional case, where the Hilbert space H = \mathbb{C}^n is an n-dimensional complex vector space, the projective Hilbert space \mathrm{PH}(H) is isomorphic to the complex projective space \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^{n-1}, which has complex dimension n-1.^[10] This space consists of equivalence classes of nonzero vectors in H, where two vectors z, z' \in H \setminus \{0\} are identified if z' = \lambda z for some \lambda \in \mathbb{C}^* = \mathbb{C} \setminus \{0\}.^[10] Points in \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^{n-1} are represented using homogeneous coordinates [z_1 : z_2 : \dots : z_n], where (z_1, \dots, z_n) \in \mathbb{C}^n \setminus \{0\} and the notation indicates equivalence under \mathbb{C}^*-scaling.^[10] To endow \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^{n-1} with a manifold structure, it is covered by n standard affine charts U_k = \{ \in \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^{n-1} \mid z_k \neq 0 \} for k = 1, \dots, n, each diffeomorphic to \mathbb{C}^{n-1}.^[10] On U_k, the holomorphic coordinates are given by w_i^{(k)} = z_i / z_k for i \neq k, providing a local identification with \mathbb{C}^{n-1}.^[10] The overlaps between charts ensure compatibility through transition functions that are holomorphic. For instance, on U_j \cap U_k with j \neq k, the transition from coordinates on U_j to those on U_k is w_i^{(k)} = w_i^{(j)} / w_j^{(j)} for i \neq k, j, while the coordinate corresponding to the j-th direction in the U_k-system is w_j^{(k)} = 1 / w_j^{(j)}.^[10] These transition maps are rational functions that are holomorphic on the overlaps, confirming that the atlas \{ (U_k, \phi_k) \mid k = 1, \dots, n \}, where \phi_k denotes the coordinate map, defines a complex manifold structure on \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^{n-1}.^[10] In the infinite-dimensional setting, for a separable infinite-dimensional complex Hilbert space H, the projective space \mathrm{PH}(H) inherits a smooth manifold structure as the quotient of the unit sphere in H by the S^1-action, resulting in a non-compact infinite-dimensional complex manifold.^[11] Unlike the finite-dimensional case, it lacks a finite atlas of charts analogous to the affine coverings, but it supports a differentiable structure compatible with the quotient topology.^[11]

Fubini-Study Metric and Kähler Geometry

The Fubini-Study metric on the projective Hilbert space \mathbb{P}(\mathcal{H}), where \mathcal{H} is a finite-dimensional complex Hilbert space of dimension n+1, arises as the quotient metric induced from the round metric on the unit sphere S^{2n+1} \subset \mathcal{H} via the Hopf fibration \pi: S^{2n+1} \to \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^n.^[10] Specifically, for tangent vectors H_1, H_2 at a line L \in \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^n, the metric is given by g_{\mathrm{FS},L}(H_1, H_2) = g_{S_x}(H_1 x, H_2 x), where x \in L \cap S^{2n+1} and g_S is the standard round metric on the sphere, ensuring the projection is a Riemannian submersion.^[10] In affine charts, such as the standard chart on \mathbb{C}^n where [z_0 : z_1 : \cdots : z_n] = [1 : w_1 : \cdots : w_n] with w = (w_1, \dots, w_n), the Fubini-Study metric takes the local form

ds^2 = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n dw_i d\bar{w}_i}{(1 + \|w\|^2)^2},

which is the Hermitian metric g_{i\bar{j}} = \frac{\delta_{ij} (1 + \|w\|^2) - \bar{w}_i w_j}{(1 + \|w\|^2)^2}.^[12] This expression derives from the Kähler potential K(w) = \log(1 + \|w\|^2) in these coordinates, where the metric components are the mixed partial derivatives g_{i\bar{j}} = \partial_i \partial_{\bar{j}} K. In homogeneous coordinates [Z] = [Z_0 : \cdots : Z_n] with Z \in \mathcal{H} \setminus \{0\}, the Kähler potential is K(Z) = \log \sum_{i=0}^n |Z_i|^2, providing a gauge-invariant description that descends to the quotient.^[12] The associated Kähler form is the fundamental 2-form \omega = \frac{i}{2} \partial \bar{\partial} \log(1 + \|w\|^2) in affine coordinates, or more generally \omega = \frac{i}{2} \partial \bar{\partial} K, making \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^n a Kähler manifold.^[12] This form is closed (d\omega = 0) and compatible with the complex structure, endowing the space with a natural symplectic structure where \omega serves as the symplectic 2-form. Consequently, the Fubini-Study geometry supports Hamiltonian mechanics, with geodesics corresponding to Hamiltonian flows generated by the metric's symplectic potential.^[12] The Fubini-Study metric exhibits constant holomorphic sectional curvature equal to 4 (in the standard normalization), with sectional curvatures ranging from 1 to 4, achieving the maximum on holomorphic planes.^[10] It is an Einstein metric, satisfying \mathrm{Ric}(g_{\mathrm{FS}}) = 2(n+1) \, g_{\mathrm{FS}} for \dim_{\mathbb{C}} \mathbb{C}\mathbb{P}^n = n, and thus Kähler-Einstein, reflecting its role as a Hermitian symmetric space of rank 1.^[10]^[13] In the infinite-dimensional case, where \mathcal{H} is a separable complex Hilbert space, the Fubini-Study metric extends to \mathbb{P}(\mathcal{H}) via the same quotient construction from the unit sphere in \mathcal{H}, yielding a complete Kähler metric \sigma^2 that generalizes the finite-dimensional version.^[14] However, challenges arise in ensuring well-definedness and completeness, often requiring weak topologies on \mathcal{H} to handle convergence of rays and to embed bounded domains isometrically into \mathbb{P}(\mathcal{H}) using Bergman kernels.^[14]

Properties and Theorems

Dimension and Homogeneity

The projective Hilbert space PH(H) associated to a finite-dimensional complex Hilbert space H of dimension n is diffeomorphic to the complex projective space \mathbb{CP}^{n-1}, a smooth manifold of real dimension $2(n-1).^[15] In the infinite-dimensional case, where \dim H = \infty, PH(H) has infinite real dimension and is non-compact.^[16] For finite n, \mathbb{CP}^{n-1} is compact as a quotient of the compact unit sphere in H by the S^1-action.^[15] Its singular homology groups satisfy H_k(\mathbb{CP}^{n-1}; \mathbb{Z}) = \mathbb{Z} for k = 0, 2, \dots, 2(n-1) and H_k(\mathbb{CP}^{n-1}; \mathbb{Z}) = 0 otherwise, reflecting its CW-complex structure with one cell in each even dimension from 0 to $2(n-1).^[17] The Euler characteristic is \chi(\mathbb{CP}^{n-1}) = n, obtained as the alternating sum of Betti numbers or the number of CW-cells.^[17] As a homogeneous space, \mathbb{CP}^{n-1} \cong U(n) / (U(1) \times U(n-1)), where the unitary group U(n) acts transitively by transforming lines in H into each other.^[15] The integral cohomology ring is H^*(\mathbb{CP}^{n-1}; \mathbb{Z}) \cong \mathbb{Z} / (x^n), where x is the generator in degree 2 represented by the Kähler class [\omega] of the Fubini-Study form.^[18]

Unitary Group Action

The unitary group U(\mathcal{H}) acts on the Hilbert space \mathcal{H} by unitary operators, which preserve the inner product and thus map rays to rays, inducing an action on the projective Hilbert space \mathbb{P}\mathcal{H} defined by [U\psi] = [U \psi], where rays are preserved up to a global phase factor e^{i\theta} with \theta \in \mathbb{R}.^[19] This action is well-defined because unitary operators maintain the equivalence relation on nonzero vectors, ensuring that the projective space, consisting of one-dimensional subspaces, is invariant under the transformation.^[19] The kernel of this induced action is the center U(1), consisting of phase multiplications, so the effective group acting on \mathbb{P}\mathcal{H} is the projective unitary group \mathrm{PU}(\mathcal{H}) = U(\mathcal{H}) / U(1).^[19] For finite-dimensional \mathcal{H} = \mathbb{C}^n, this is \mathrm{PU}(n), which acts transitively and effectively on \mathbb{P}\mathbb{C}^n \cong \mathbb{CP}^{n-1}, meaning any two rays can be mapped to each other by some element of \mathrm{PU}(n), and the action is faithful.^[19] The stabilizer of a specific point, such as the ray [e_1] spanned by the first standard basis vector, is the subgroup isomorphic to U(n-1), consisting of unitaries that fix this ray up to phase.^[19] Under the action of \mathrm{PU}(n), the entire space \mathbb{CP}^{n-1} forms a single orbit, confirming its homogeneity as a manifold where the group action realizes the transitive symmetry.^[19] In the infinite-dimensional case for separable \mathcal{H}, \mathrm{PU}(\mathcal{H}) similarly acts transitively on \mathbb{P}\mathcal{H}, with the projective space being the set of all one-dimensional subspaces. The infinitesimal action arises from the Lie algebra \mathfrak{u}(n), consisting of skew-Hermitian matrices, which generates derivations on \mathbb{CP}^{n-1} via the fundamental vector fields; these correspond to Killing vector fields with respect to the Fubini-Study metric, where the metric tensor is proportional to the negative Killing form restricted to the tangent space.^[19]^[20] As a consequence, \mathbb{P}\mathcal{H} is a symmetric space under the action of \mathrm{PU}(\mathcal{H}), characterized by an involution at each point whose fixed-point set is the isotropy subgroup, yielding a Riemannian symmetric structure invariant under the group.^[19]

Applications in Physics

Quantum Mechanics State Space

In quantum mechanics, the physical states of a system are represented by rays in the Hilbert space rather than individual vectors, owing to the invariance of observables under global phase transformations. Specifically, for a normalized state vector |\psi\rangle \in \mathcal{H}, the expectation value of an operator A is \langle \psi | A | \psi \rangle, which remains unchanged if |\psi\rangle is replaced by e^{i\theta} |\psi\rangle for any real \theta. This phase invariance implies that states differing only by a phase factor describe the same physical situation, leading to the identification of equivalence classes known as rays [\psi], which form the projective Hilbert space \mathbb{P}(\mathcal{H}). Pure quantum states correspond bijectively to rank-1 orthogonal projectors P_\psi = |\psi\rangle\langle\psi|, where the density operator for the pure state is \rho = P_\psi, and the expectation value of an observable A is given by \operatorname{Tr}(\rho A). This representation ensures that the projective structure captures the physically distinguishable states without redundancy from phase factors. Superpositions in the Hilbert space \mathcal{H} map to nonlinear combinations in \mathbb{P}(\mathcal{H}), as the projection operation normalizes linear combinations, which underpins quantum interference phenomena essential to the theory. A canonical example is the state space of a single qubit, which is the projective space \mathbb{CP}^1 \cong S^2, known as the Bloch sphere. Basis states such as |0\rangle correspond to the north pole, while equatorial points represent equal superpositions like \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0\rangle + |1\rangle). The Born rule governs measurement probabilities: for normalized states |\phi\rangle and |\psi\rangle, the probability of outcome associated with |\phi\rangle when measuring in the basis including |\psi\rangle is | \langle \phi | \psi \rangle |^2, which in the projective space is the squared modulus of the overlap between rays [ \phi ] and [ \psi ]; this overlap relates to the Fubini-Study distance measuring state distinguishability. Historically, Paul Dirac's introduction of bra-ket notation in the 1930s implicitly incorporated the projective nature of quantum states by treating kets as abstract vectors in Hilbert space while emphasizing phase-invariant inner products.^[21]

Representation in Phase Space Formulations

In phase space formulations of quantum mechanics, coherent states for bosonic systems offer a natural parameterization of the projective Hilbert space PH(H). These states, labeled by complex parameters α ∈ ℂ^n, correspond to points in the classical phase space, parameterized by points in \mathbb{C}^n \cong \mathbb{R}^{2n}, the classical phase space for n modes, via coherent states labeled by \alpha \in \mathbb{C}^n.^[22] Each coherent state |α⟩ is a minimum-uncertainty Gaussian wave packet displaced in phase space, minimizing the Heisenberg uncertainty and bridging quantum and classical descriptions.^[23] The set of coherent states forms an overcomplete basis in the Hilbert space, enabling a resolution of the identity:

\int_{\mathbb{C}^n} |\alpha\rangle \langle \alpha| \frac{d^2\alpha}{\pi^n} = I,

where dμ(α) = d²α / π^n is the invariant measure on ℂ^n, ensuring that any state can be expanded in this basis despite the redundancy.^[23] This overcompleteness facilitates phase space integrals over the projective space, useful for computing expectation values and evolving states under bosonic Hamiltonians. The Husimi Q-function provides a smoothed quasi-probability distribution on this phase space, defined for a density operator ρ as

Q(\alpha) = \frac{1}{\pi^n} \langle \alpha | \rho | \alpha \rangle.

It represents quantum states on PH(H) as non-negative functions, convolving the Wigner function with a Gaussian to avoid negative values, and integrates to unity over the phase space.^[24] This distribution is particularly valuable for visualizing quantum interference and classical-like behavior in bosonic systems. The projective Hilbert space relates to symplectic geometry as the quantum analog of classical phase space structures, such as the cotangent bundle T^*ℝ^n modulo ℤ_2 identifications, where the Fubini-Study symplectic form underlies the quantization procedure.^[25] The Bargmann transform further illuminates this connection by unitarily mapping L²(ℝ^n) to the Hilbert space of holomorphic functions on ℂ^n, equipped with a Gaussian measure that preserves the Kähler structure and reveals the complex geometry of the phase space. A canonical example is the quantum harmonic oscillator, where the infinite-dimensional Hilbert space yields PH(H) parameterized by the complex plane ℂ ≅ ℝ², the classical phase space of position and momentum. Here, coherent states |α⟩ trace circular orbits under time evolution, mirroring classical trajectories while incorporating quantum fluctuations via the Q-function.^[22]

Generalizations and Extensions

Infinite-Dimensional Cases

In the infinite-dimensional case, the projective Hilbert space PH(H) for a separable Hilbert space H, such as ℓ²(ℕ), differs significantly from its finite-dimensional analogue due to topological and geometric pathologies. While H admits a countable orthonormal basis, PH(H) is non-compact and lacks the smooth manifold structure of finite-dimensional complex projective spaces, as it cannot be covered by a single chart or finite atlas in a Banach manifold sense; instead, it is constructed as the inductive limit of the finite-dimensional projective spaces PH(H_n), where H_n is the n-dimensional subspace spanned by the first n basis vectors.^[26] This inductive limit topology ensures that PH(H) is paracompact and metrizable via a Fubini-Study-like metric defined locally on each PH(H_n), but the global structure avoids the pitfalls of attempting a uniform infinite-dimensional metric.^[27] The Fubini-Study metric on PH(H) is defined using the Kähler potential ∂∂̅ log‖Z‖² on affine charts, extending the finite-dimensional formula, but its global implementation requires care due to the non-compactness of the unit sphere in H.^[26] PH(H) is separable as a metric space under this metric (or equivalent ones like the chordal distance ρ([φ],[ψ]) = √(1 - |⟨φ|ψ⟩|² for unit vectors φ, ψ), coinciding with the weak topology induced by transition probabilities tr(PQ) for rank-one projectors P, Q, making it a second-countable Hausdorff space.^[11] However, convergence in PH(H) often involves subtleties with operator topologies: sequences of projectors converge in the strong operator topology if ‖P_n x - P x‖ → 0 for all x ∈ H, whereas the weak operator topology uses ⟨P_n x, y⟩ → ⟨P x, y⟩ for all x, y ∈ H; for pure states, these align with the metric topology on PH(H), but distinctions arise in unbounded settings.^[11] Generalized coherent states can be constructed such that their linear span is dense in H, implying that their corresponding rays densely span PH(H) in the weak or metric topology. These states, constructed via group actions or analytic continuation from finite-dimensional cases, provide a practical way to approximate any pure state, leveraging overcompleteness without a resolution of the identity in the infinite-dimensional limit. Elements of PH(H) are identified with rank-one orthogonal projectors (projective units), facilitating this density. In applications to quantum field theory (QFT), PH(H) serves as the state space for the Fock space of bosonic or fermionic fields, which is separable and infinite-dimensional, but practical computations face renormalization challenges due to ultraviolet divergences that prevent direct use of the full PH(H) without regularizing infinite volumes or modes.^[28] Unlike the finite-dimensional case, the projective unitary group PU(H) = U(H)/U(1) lacks a bi-invariant Haar measure, as U(H) is not locally compact; instead, invariant means or approximate measures on finite-dimensional approximations are employed for integration over state spaces or representations.^[29] This absence underscores the need for inductive or weak topologies in infinite-dimensional quantum theories to maintain mathematical rigor.

Analogues in Other Settings

The real projective Hilbert space arises as the projectivization of a real Hilbert space H, defined as \mathbb{RP}(H) = (H \setminus \{0\}) / (\mathbb{R} \setminus \{0\}), where \mathbb{R} \setminus \{0\} acts by non-zero scalar multiplication.^[30] For a finite-dimensional real Hilbert space of dimension n, this space is the real projective space \mathbb{RP}^{n-1} of real dimension

n-1}

.^[31] In classical mechanics, real projective Hilbert spaces appear in formulations of projective dynamics, where properties like the closure of Keplerian orbits after one period are invariant under projective transformations.^[32] Grassmannians provide higher-rank analogues of projective Hilbert spaces, generalizing the space of 1-dimensional subspaces to the space of k-dimensional subspaces in a Hilbert space H. The Grassmannian \mathrm{Gr}_k(H) consists of equivalence classes of k-planes in H, embedding into a projective space via the Plücker embedding, which realizes it as a projective algebraic variety.^[33] For k=1, \mathrm{Gr}_1(H) recovers the projective Hilbert space, highlighting its role as the foundational case in this hierarchy.^[34] In twistor theory, introduced by Roger Penrose in the 1960s, the projective twistor space \mathbb{PT} serves as an analogue of projective Hilbert space, modeling aspects of spacetime geometry. Specifically, \mathbb{PT} \cong \mathbb{CP}^3 is the projectivization of the twistor space \mathbb{T} = \mathbb{C}^4, establishing a correspondence between null geodesics in complexified Minkowski spacetime and points in \mathbb{PT}.^[35] Non-commutative geometry extends the projective Hilbert space framework through spectral triples (A, H, D), where A is a non-commutative algebra acting on a Hilbert space H, and D is a Dirac-like operator encoding metric information. In this setting, classical vector bundles are replaced by finitely generated projective modules over A, providing a non-commutative analogue of projective spaces that captures geometric structures on "non-commutative manifolds."^[36] Projective spinor bundles in differential geometry generalize projective structures to spinor contexts, particularly in relation to Dirac operators on Riemannian manifolds. For a spin manifold M, the projective spinor bundle is constructed as \mathbb{P}^\pm(M) = S(M) \times_{\sigma^\pm} \mathbb{P}(\Delta^\pm_4), where S(M) is the spinor bundle and \Delta^\pm_4 are the half-spin representations; this structure admits a compatible Dirac operator whose symbol induces the spinor bundle's irreducibility.^[31] The infinite-dimensional projective Hilbert space \mathbb{PH}(H) possesses a universal property as the classifying space for U(1)-principal bundles (or equivalently, complex line bundles), where homotopy classes of maps from a space X to \mathbb{PH}(H) \cong \mathbb{CP}^\infty classify such bundles over X.^[37]

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Dec 16, 2008 · We show that two properties in classical particle dynamics are projective properties. The fact that the Keplerian orbits close after one turn is ...
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[PDF] Cohomology of the complex Grassmannian
The Grassmannian is a generalization of projective spaces–instead of looking at the set of lines of some vector space, we look at the set of all n-planes ...Missing: higher- rank
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[PDF] Projective Spaces, Grassmannians and the Plücker Embedding
... projective spaces which are sets of one- dimensional subspaces. This concept is then generalized to higher dimensions, in the chapter on Grassmannians.
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Twistor Algebra | Journal of Mathematical Physics - AIP Publishing
Penrose; Twistor Algebra. J. Math. Phys. 1 February 1967; 8 (2): 345–366 ... This content is only available via PDF. Open the PDF for in another window.
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https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jmp/article/8/2/345/233824/Twistor-Algebra
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https://www.alainconnes.org/wp-content/uploads/book94bigpdf.pdf