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Pure alexia

Pure alexia, also known as alexia without agraphia or word blindness, is an acquired neurological disorder characterized by a profound impairment in reading ability despite preserved writing skills, normal intelligence, and intact visual acuity.^[1]^[2] This condition typically arises from damage to specific brain regions, most commonly the left occipitotemporal area and the splenium of the corpus callosum, disrupting the connection between visual processing areas and language centers without affecting other linguistic functions.^[1]^[3] First described in detail by French neurologist Joseph Jules Déjérine in 1892 through postmortem examinations of patients with reading deficits, pure alexia was later conceptualized as a disconnection syndrome by Norman Geschwind in 1965, highlighting how lesions sever the transfer of visual information from the right hemisphere's intact visual cortex to the left hemisphere's language-dominant angular gyrus.^[1]^[2] The most frequent etiology is ischemic stroke in the territory of the left posterior cerebral artery (PCA), which supplies the occipital lobe and medial temporal regions, though other causes include tumors, trauma, or vascular malformations.^[2]^[3] Pathophysiologically, the deficit stems from either a pure disconnection of visual input to word recognition areas or a form of visual agnosia specific to linguistic forms, leading patients to rely on laborious letter-by-letter reading strategies rather than holistic word recognition.^[1]^[3] Clinically, individuals with pure alexia exhibit severe reading slowness or complete inability to comprehend written text, ranging from failure to identify individual letters in extreme cases to slow decoding of words while maintaining fluent oral language, writing, and comprehension of spoken words.^[1]^[2] A right homonymous hemianopia—loss of the right visual field in both eyes—is often present due to concurrent occipital lobe involvement, though central vision remains unaffected.^[3]^[2] Diagnosis relies on clinical assessment of reading impairment contrasted with intact writing, supported by neuroimaging such as MRI to confirm left-sided lesions, and neuropsychological testing to exclude mimics like aphasia, hemianopic alexia, or developmental dyslexia.^[1]^[3] There is no curative treatment for pure alexia, as the underlying neural damage is typically permanent, but rehabilitation approaches can mitigate functional impact.^[2] Strategies include tactile-kinesthetic training (e.g., finger-tracing letters), modified text presentation (e.g., larger fonts or spaced letters), and repetitive oral re-reading exercises to enhance reading speed, though improvements are often modest and vary by lesion extent.^[3] Management of the causative condition, such as antiplatelet therapy for stroke prevention or surgical intervention for tumors, is essential, alongside monitoring for associated deficits like memory issues from temporal lobe involvement.^[2] Prognosis depends on etiology and rehabilitation adherence, with rare spontaneous recovery reported in partial cases, underscoring the condition's rarity—estimated at less than 1% of stroke patients—and its profound effect on daily literacy-dependent activities.^[1]^[3]^[4]

Introduction

Definition and Characteristics

Pure alexia, also known as alexia without agraphia, is an acquired peripheral dyslexia characterized by a severe impairment in reading words and text, while writing, speaking, and comprehension of spoken language remain intact.^[5] This selective reading deficit occurs in previously literate individuals following brain injury, without accompanying aphasia, dementia, or broader language impairments.^[6] It represents a disconnection or disruption in the visual processing of linguistic stimuli, preserving other cognitive functions.^[1] Key characteristics include a letter-by-letter reading strategy, in which patients identify and name individual letters sequentially before synthesizing them into words, often accompanied by a pronounced word length effect where reading time increases linearly with the number of letters—for example, varying from 200 milliseconds to several seconds per additional letter.^[7] Visual perception remains intact for non-linguistic stimuli, such as colors, objects, faces, or scenes, distinguishing pure alexia from general visual agnosias.^[5] This condition is rare, primarily affecting adults after neurological events like stroke, with an estimated incidence tied to the low prevalence of specific posterior cerebral artery infarcts.^[5] Terminology for pure alexia varies across medical literature, including agnosic alexia, word form dyslexia, or Dejerine syndrome—named after Joseph Jules Dejerine, who first described it in 1892—though this eponym should not be confused with medial medullary syndrome, which shares the name but involves different symptomatology.^[6]^[8]

Historical Background

Pure alexia, also known as alexia without agraphia, was first systematically described in 1892 by French neurologist Joseph Jules Dejerine in his clinico-pathological study of a patient exhibiting isolated reading impairment accompanied by right homonymous hemianopia but with intact writing and other language functions.^[9] Dejerine termed the condition cécité verbale pure (pure word blindness) and attributed it to a lesion in the left occipital lobe that disrupted visual processing pathways specific to written language, marking the initial recognition of pure alexia as a distinct disconnection phenomenon rather than a general visual agnosia.^[10] In the early 20th century, pure alexia was broadly conceptualized as a form of "word blindness," often grouped with other aphasic disorders, with limited emphasis on its selective nature due to sparse autopsy correlations and evolving understandings of cerebral localization.^[11] This perspective shifted significantly in the 1960s and 1970s through Norman Geschwind's influential work on disconnection syndromes, where he reframed pure alexia as resulting from severed connections between visual cortex and language areas, particularly via damage to the splenium of the corpus callosum and left occipital regions, integrating it into a broader model of white matter-mediated deficits.^[12] Geschwind's 1965 treatise highlighted how such lesions isolated right visual field input from left-hemisphere reading centers, providing a mechanistic explanation that influenced subsequent neuropsychological frameworks.^[13] Key milestones in the 1970s included autopsy-confirmed cases that solidified the link to occipital lesions, such as a 1973 report by Greenblatt detailing anatomical analysis of a patient with pure alexia without hemianopsia, revealing precise disruptions in left visual association areas and callosal fibers.^[14] By the 1980s, conceptual evolution distanced pure alexia from general agnosia toward a reading-specific impairment, emphasizing its role in delineating specialized neural circuits for orthographic processing and contributing to the foundational understanding of the visual word form system in neuropsychology.^[15]

Clinical Presentation

Core Symptoms

Pure alexia is characterized primarily by a profound impairment in reading, where individuals exhibit a complete or near-complete inability to recognize whole words as unified entities, instead relying on a slow, effortful letter-by-letter decoding strategy to identify text.^[16] This results in patients spelling out words aloud accurately based on individual letter recognition, despite frequent errors in whole-word comprehension or naming.^[1] For instance, a patient might instantly recognize and name a single letter but require progressively more time to process longer words, demonstrating a hallmark linear increase in reading latency with word length—often taking seconds per letter in multi-syllable terms.^[17] This reading deficit typically exceeds what would be expected from associated visual field impairments alone, such as right homonymous hemianopia, which is commonly present but does not fully account for the selective disruption in lexical access.^[1] In daily function, this manifests as severe challenges in navigating written material, like books or signs, forcing reliance on auditory or contextual cues for information processing, while other language skills, including writing, remain intact.^[16] Variations in symptom severity range from global alexia, where even letter identification is severely compromised, to milder forms with partial word recognition possible through prolonged effort.^[17] In some cases, recognition of non-alphabetic symbols, such as numbers or punctuation, is relatively preserved, allowing better performance on numerical tasks compared to verbal reading.

Associated Features

Patients with pure alexia exhibit a selective form of visual agnosia confined to orthographic material, manifesting as difficulty in recognizing written words as integrated wholes despite preserved identification of non-linguistic visual stimuli such as faces and objects.^[18] This orthography-specific agnosia underscores the disorder's targeted impact on the visual word form area, leaving broader visual object recognition intact.^[5] To cope with reading deficits, individuals frequently adopt compensatory strategies, including a letter-by-letter reading approach, finger-pointing along text, or subvocal naming to phonetically decode words.^[5] If the underlying lesion extends beyond the primary visual word processing regions, patients may experience ancillary perceptual issues such as color anomia—where colors can be matched but not named—or transient achromatopsia, characterized by distorted color perception.^[19] Language functions outside of reading remain largely preserved, with patients demonstrating fluent oral speech, intact auditory comprehension of spoken language, and the ability to write without errors, including accurate copying of text that they subsequently cannot read.^[5] This dissociation highlights the specificity of the impairment to visual input processing for orthography. Functionally, pure alexia disrupts routine tasks reliant on rapid text recognition, such as interpreting street signs, reading books, or navigating forms, while sparing overall cognitive abilities and preventing broader aphasic disturbances.^[5]

Pathophysiology

Neuroanatomical Basis

Pure alexia arises from lesions primarily affecting the left occipital lobe, including the visual cortex in Brodmann areas 17, 18, and 19, which disrupt early visual processing essential for reading.^[20] Damage often extends to the ventral occipitotemporal pathway, particularly the visual word form area (VWFA) located in the left fusiform gyrus (Brodmann area 37), a region specialized for rapid recognition of written words independent of case or font.^[6] The splenium of the corpus callosum is also frequently implicated, serving as a critical interhemispheric conduit for visual information.^[21] These structures form the core neuroanatomical substrate, where isolated damage leads to selective impairment in visual word processing while preserving other cognitive functions.^[20] The disconnection model explains pure alexia as a disruption in the transfer of visual input to language areas, particularly when lesions in the splenium prevent right visual field information—processed in the right hemisphere—from reaching left-hemisphere linguistic networks.^[6] Additional damage to white matter tracts, such as the inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF), isolates the VWFA from upstream visual inputs, impairing the pathway's ability to integrate letter strings into meaningful words.^[21] This model highlights how pure alexia results from severed connectivity rather than primary destruction of reading centers, often following posterior cerebral artery strokes that spare higher language regions.^[20] Functional and structural imaging corroborates these findings, with fMRI demonstrating reduced activation in the left fusiform gyrus during reading tasks in affected individuals, underscoring the VWFA's role in word-form invariance.^[6] Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) further reveals disruptions in key tracts like the ILF and vertical occipital fasciculus, confirming white matter integrity as vital for efficient reading networks.^[21] In right-handed individuals, these deficits emphasize the left-hemisphere's dominance for reading, where the ventral stream's laterality supports specialized orthographic processing.^[20]

Etiological Mechanisms

The primary etiological mechanism underlying pure alexia is ischemic stroke in the territory of the left posterior cerebral artery (PCA), which accounts for the majority of cases.^[2] This vascular event typically results from embolic or thrombotic occlusion, leading to infarction of the left occipital cortex and adjacent structures.^[5] The pathophysiological sequence begins with arterial blockage, causing acute hypoxia and subsequent neuronal death in the oxygen-dependent occipital regions involved in visual processing, such as the visual word form area (VWFA).^[2] This selective damage disrupts the transmission of orthographic information to intact language centers without affecting broader linguistic functions like writing or comprehension.^[1] Other etiologies are less common and include traumatic brain injury, which may produce similar disconnection through direct mechanical disruption of occipitotemporal pathways; intracranial tumors, such as glioblastomas or metastases compressing or infiltrating visual association areas; and infectious processes like encephalitis or abscesses causing inflammatory damage to posterior cortical regions.^[5] Migraines with prolonged aura can rarely trigger transient pure alexia via vasospasm or cortical spreading depression affecting PCA-supplied territories, though this resolves without permanent lesion.^[2] Rare degenerative associations exist, notably in posterior cortical atrophy (PCA), a variant of Alzheimer's disease where progressive neurodegeneration in occipitotemporal cortices leads to alexia as an early feature.^[22] Key risk factors mirror those for PCA territory strokes and include vascular conditions such as hypertension and atherosclerosis, which promote plaque formation and embolism.^[5] Advanced age over 50 years heightens susceptibility due to cumulative vascular wear, while atypical hemispheric dominance, such as in some left-handed individuals, may increase etiological variability, potentially shifting lesion effects to the right hemisphere.^[5]

Diagnosis

Assessment Methods

Clinical assessment of pure alexia primarily involves targeted reading tasks to identify characteristic impairments such as letter-by-letter reading and the word-length effect, where reading time increases disproportionately with word length. Patients are typically asked to read aloud single words, nonwords, and sentences of varying lengths, revealing slowed processing and spelling-out strategies without phonological errors. Standardized batteries, including the Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination (BDAE), are employed to evaluate oral reading subcomponents and confirm the isolation of reading deficits from broader aphasia.^[23]^[24] Quantitative metrics from these tasks quantify severity, with reading speeds often measured in milliseconds per letter (typically 150-200 ms/letter in affected individuals versus near-zero in controls) or overall reaction times (around 1300 ms per word compared to 400 ms in healthy readers); error rates remain low (under 10%) but focus on orthographic stimuli like irregularly spelled words. These measures distinguish pure alexia from other dyslexias by highlighting preserved comprehension when words are spelled aloud, alongside intact writing abilities.^[25]^[26] Neuroimaging techniques localize lesions and assess functional connectivity essential for diagnosis. Structural MRI or CT scans identify damage in the left occipito-temporal region, often near the visual word form area (VWFA). Functional MRI (fMRI) evaluates VWFA activation during reading tasks, showing reduced or absent responses to words in pure alexia patients. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) examines white matter tract integrity, particularly the inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF), revealing disconnection between visual areas and language networks.^[27] Behavioral assessments include visual field testing via perimetry, such as the Humphrey field analyzer, to confirm right homonymous hemianopia, which often co-occurs and contributes to reading difficulties through macular splitting or sectoranopia. To exclude general cognitive deficits, standardized IQ tests (e.g., Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and attention evaluations (e.g., Trail Making Test) are administered, ensuring reading impairments are not attributable to global intellectual or attentional decline.^[25]^[24]

Differential Diagnosis

Pure alexia, characterized by a selective impairment in reading without deficits in writing or other language functions, requires careful differentiation from related disorders to guide appropriate clinical management. This involves assessing the preservation of writing abilities, the nature of reading errors, and the presence or absence of broader language or visual processing impairments. Diagnostic batteries for reading can aid in distinguishing these conditions by evaluating reading speed, accuracy, and error patterns.^[5] A primary distinction lies between pure alexia and alexia with agraphia. In pure alexia, writing and spelling remain intact despite severe reading difficulties, typically resulting from lesions in the left occipitotemporal region or disconnection via the splenium of the corpus callosum.^[28] In contrast, alexia with agraphia involves impairments in both reading and writing, often accompanied by elements of aphasia, due to lesions in the dominant parietal lobe, such as the angular gyrus.^[5] This combined form arises from middle cerebral artery territory infarcts, whereas pure alexia is more commonly linked to posterior cerebral artery strokes.^[28] Pure alexia also differs from surface dyslexia, whether developmental or acquired. Surface dyslexia features regularization errors, particularly with irregular words (e.g., reading "yacht" as /yakt/), stemming from overreliance on phonological decoding without the letter-by-letter reading strategy seen in pure alexia.^[29] In pure alexia, patients recognize letters individually but struggle to integrate them into whole words, leading to disproportionately slow reading times that increase linearly with word length, without the characteristic sound-based errors of surface dyslexia.^[30] Acquired surface dyslexia often follows temporal lobe damage, preserving overall comprehension unlike the isolated reading deficit in pure alexia.^[31] Unlike aphasia subtypes such as Wernicke's aphasia, pure alexia spares oral language comprehension and production. Wernicke's aphasia, caused by lesions in the posterior superior temporal gyrus, presents with fluent but nonsensical speech, impaired auditory comprehension, and often alexia as part of a broader language disorder, including potential agraphia.^[5] In pure alexia, speech remains fluent and comprehension intact, with reading impairment limited to visual word recognition due to occipitotemporal damage, without the semantic or phonological deficits central to aphasic syndromes.^[28] Differentiation from hemianopic alexia is crucial, as both may involve right homonymous hemianopia from left occipital lesions. Hemianopic alexia primarily results from visual field defects that slow reading by limiting peripheral vision, but patients can often compensate with head or eye movements, showing milder, non-length-dependent impairments.^[32] Pure alexia, however, entails a deeper agnosia for word forms beyond mere field loss, with persistent letter-by-letter reading and frequent errors even on single words, often requiring additional damage to the ventral occipitotemporal cortex. Rare mimics like neglect dyslexia, typically from right parietal lesions, involve spatial neglect leading to omissions of letters on the contralesional side (e.g., reading "table" as "tble"), contrasting with the global word recognition failure in pure alexia without directional bias.^[33]

Management and Rehabilitation

Therapeutic Approaches

Therapeutic approaches for pure alexia primarily focus on rehabilitation techniques to enhance reading fluency, supplemented by assistive technologies and management of underlying conditions. Multiple oral re-reading (MOR) therapy, a compensatory strategy, involves patients reading aloud short text passages repeatedly, often multiple times daily over several weeks, to build familiarity and reduce the word-length effect characteristic of pure alexia.^[34] In small studies involving patients with pure alexia, MOR has led to significant increases in reading speed for trained materials, with generalization to some untrained text, though effects are more pronounced in milder cases.^[16] Cross-modal training, such as tactile-kinesthetic methods, engages multiple sensory inputs to facilitate letter and word recognition; for instance, patients trace letters or words with their finger on a surface or skin while simultaneously naming them aloud.^[35] This approach exploits residual abilities in non-visual modalities, yielding improvements in reading accuracy and speed in case studies, with one patient achieving 100% accuracy and doubled reading speed after four weeks of practice.^[36] Audio-visual variants, where visual word presentation is paired with auditory feedback, have also strengthened neural connectivity supporting reading in group trials of pure alexia patients.^[37] Technological aids support daily functioning by bypassing visual reading deficits; text-to-speech software converts written material into spoken output, enabling access to information without reliance on impaired reading, while apps for letter magnification or large-print adaptations reduce visual strain.^[38] For associated right hemianopia, optical aids like prisms or scanning devices help compensate for visual field loss during text navigation.^[2] No specific pharmacological treatments target pure alexia directly, but underlying etiologies such as ischemic stroke are managed with standard interventions like antiplatelet therapy to prevent recurrence and support overall recovery.^[5] Experimental neuromodulation, including transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) applied to occipital regions during MOR sessions, has shown promise in accelerating reading gains in case reports, with one patient demonstrating faster recovery when combining the two.^[39] These interventions aim to elevate reading fluency from typical baseline rates below 10 words per minute (wpm) in pure alexia to more functional levels, with evidence from small clinical trials indicating 20-50% improvements in speed and accuracy post-therapy.^[35]^[40]

Prognosis and Outcomes

The prognosis for pure alexia is variable, with partial spontaneous recovery observed in many patients through neuroplasticity and reorganization of neural pathways, often occurring within the first 6-12 months following onset.^[5] Complete restoration of premorbid reading fluency is rare, and severe impairments persist in a substantial proportion of cases, leading to long-term reliance on compensatory strategies.^[41] In a series of eight patients, five (63%) achieved recovery over two years, while one showed no improvement, highlighting the potential for meaningful but incomplete amelioration in select individuals.^[1] Several factors influence outcomes, including lesion size and extent, where smaller, more circumscribed damage to the left occipitotemporal region correlates with better recovery prospects due to preserved surrounding neural tissue.^[5] Younger age at onset and prompt initiation of rehabilitation further enhance prognostic potential by facilitating adaptive neural changes.^[42] Right-hemisphere compensation, involving recruitment of homologous areas in the non-dominant hemisphere, has been documented in neuroimaging studies of recovering patients, enabling partial restoration of word recognition via alternative visual processing routes. Functionally, many patients attain adaptive reading capabilities, such as letter-by-letter decoding or use of assistive technologies, allowing basic navigation of written material despite slowed processing speeds.^[16] However, full pre-morbid efficiency remains elusive for most, resulting in enduring limitations in tasks requiring rapid text comprehension, like professional or educational demands. Therapeutic approaches, including multiple oral rereading, can support these adaptations in a subset of cases.^[35]

Research Developments

Foundational Studies

In 1892, French neurologist Jules Déjerine published a seminal case report of a 56-year-old patient who developed an inability to read words and sentences following a left occipital stroke, while retaining the ability to write and speak fluently, marking the first clear description of pure alexia without agraphia.^[43] Autopsy revealed a lesion in the left angular gyrus and surrounding white matter, which Déjerine hypothesized disconnected visual processing areas from language centers, preserving other visual functions like color and object recognition.^[44] Building on this, Norman Geschwind's 1965 disconnection theory provided a mechanistic framework for pure alexia, proposing that lesions in the left primary visual cortex combined with damage to the splenium of the corpus callosum prevent visual information from the intact right visual cortex from reaching left-hemisphere language areas, thus isolating visuolinguistic processing.^[12] This model explained why patients could copy words but not comprehend them, emphasizing interhemispheric transfer via callosal fibers as critical for normal reading.^[13] From the 1970s to 1990s, postmortem examinations validated these lesion localizations; for instance, a 1983 study analyzing 16 patients with pure alexia identified paraventricular white matter lesions in the left occipital lobe as the key correlate, disrupting fibers linking visual cortex to angular gyrus without involving cortical language regions.^[45] Concurrently, early functional neuroimaging in the 1990s, including fMRI studies, began delineating the visual word form area (VWFA) in the left mid-fusiform gyrus as essential for orthographic processing, with reduced activation in pure alexia patients confirming its role in rapid word recognition.^[46] These foundational investigations also established letter-by-letter reading as a compensatory strategy in pure alexia, where patients identify individual letters sequentially rather than processing words holistically, as evidenced in cohort studies from the 1980s showing overt scanning behaviors during reading tasks.^[47] The word-length effect was quantified in patient groups during this period, with reading times increasing linearly by 0.5–1 second per additional letter, underscoring the serial nature of this compensation and its dependence on preserved letter recognition.^[48]

Recent Advances

Recent research from 2022 to 2025 has increasingly emphasized neuroplasticity in pure alexia recovery, particularly through advanced neuroimaging that reveals adaptive neural reorganization following lesions in key reading pathways. A 2025 study in Frontiers in Human Neuroscience examined kanji alexia in Japanese patients, identifying lesions in the left posterior inferior temporal cortex and mid-fusiform gyrus as primary causes, with long-term recovery—such as kanji-dominant reading restoration up to nine years post-injury—attributed to neuroplastic mechanisms like callosal involvement and hemispheric compensation.^[49] Similarly, a 2024 analysis of post-stroke Chinese pure alexia highlighted prominent shape-similar errors (48.3% of reading mistakes), linked to visuospatial dysfunction and occipitotemporal damage, underscoring script-specific neuroplastic challenges in logographic languages.^[50] Diagnostic advancements have addressed assessment complexities, as demonstrated in a 2024 mixed-methods study published in Brain Sciences. This work utilized cluster and thematic analyses across diverse alexia subtypes, including pure alexia tied to Visual Word Form Area lesions, revealing the need for multifaceted evaluations of visual processing and character identification beyond standard reading tests. The study advocated for culturally adapted tools, such as script-specific assessments for non-Latin systems like kanji or Chinese characters, to account for linguistic variations and improve diagnostic accuracy in global populations.^[51] A 2025 case report in Cureus detailed pure alexia without agraphia in a 60-year-old woman following left posterior cerebral artery infarction, confirmed by CT imaging showing occipitotemporal hypoattenuation. The patient exhibited intact letter recognition but impaired sentence reading, with no other deficits, illustrating the classic disconnection from the foundational model while highlighting potential for spontaneous recovery through residual pathways, though advanced diffusion tensor imaging was not applied.^[52] Emerging therapies have shown promise in small-scale trials, focusing on neuromodulation and digital interventions. A 2021 case report in Neurological Sciences reported that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) combined with multiple oral re-reading therapy accelerated reading recovery in a post-stroke patient with pure alexia, yielding greater gains in comprehension and speed (e.g., increased words per minute) during real tDCS sessions compared to sham, suggesting enhanced neural activation in damaged occipitotemporal regions. These approaches address persistent gaps, with recent cohorts showing notable progress rates, though larger trials are needed for broader validation.

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Two case reports published by Dejerine in 1891 and 1892 represent important milestones in the study of alexia (37; 36). ... Rehabilitation of pure alexia: a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Shades of Déjerine—Forging a Causal Link between the Visual ...
Apr 20, 2006 · In 1892, the French neurologist Jules Déjerine suggested that pure alexia resulted from an occipital lesion that selectively disconnected visual input.
[43]
Jules Dejerine and his interpretation of pure alexia - PubMed
We provide such an evaluation in this paper, summarizing the behavioral data that Dejerine presented in his now famous case report and the theoretical framework ...Missing: 1892 | Show results with:1892
[44]
The anatomic basis of pure alexia - PubMed
The crucial anatomic correlate of alexia was a lesion of the paraventricular white matter of the left occipital lobe, capable of compromising both ...
[45]
visual word form area | Brain - Oxford Academic
We first consider the fMRI activations which were common to LVF and RVF words. As shown in Fig. 3, a large network comprising left inferior temporal, bilateral ...
[46]
The evolution of pure alexia: A longitudinal study of recovery
This case report documents the partial recovery, over a 12-month period, of pure alexia in an adult female following a left occipital infarction.
[47]
The word-length effect in reading: A review - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · Word-length effects are larger in pure alexia, where they probably reflect a serial letter-by-letter strategy, due to failure of lexical whole- ...
[48]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261101379_The_word-length_effect_in_reading_A_review
[49]
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1664803
[50]
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13760-024-02479-z
[51]
https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14070636