Redcurrant

The redcurrant (Ribes rubrum) is a deciduous shrub in the family Grossulariaceae, native to western Europe, where it grows naturally in woodlands and damp areas.^[1] It typically reaches 1–2 meters in height, featuring upright to arching stems, palmately lobed leaves up to 12 cm wide, and pendulous clusters of small, greenish-yellow flowers that bloom in spring.^[2] The plant produces bright red, translucent berries in strings of 8–20, each about 6–10 mm in diameter, which ripen in early to mid-summer and are known for their tart flavor.^[3] Widely cultivated since ancient times^[4] for its edible fruit, the redcurrant thrives in cool climates and is hardy to USDA Zone 3, making it suitable for northern gardens in North America and beyond.^[2] It prefers well-drained, loamy soils with neutral pH, full sun to partial shade, and requires minimal pruning to maintain productivity, though it benefits from organic matter enrichment and protection from birds during harvest.^[5] The berries are rich in antioxidants, vitamin C, and fiber, and are primarily used fresh, in jams, jellies, pies, sauces, and traditional European desserts like tarts and fruit soups.^[6] Cultivated varieties, such as 'Red Lake' and 'Rovada', often derive from hybrids involving R. rubrum and related species like R. spicatum, enhancing fruit quality and disease resistance.^[6]^[7] In addition to its culinary value, the redcurrant serves as an ornamental plant due to its compact form and attractive foliage, though it can be susceptible to pests like aphids and diseases such as powdery mildew in humid conditions.^[5] Its introduction to North America dates back to colonial times, where it escaped cultivation and now occurs in disturbed habitats like woods, fields, and fencerows.^[3]

Description

Physical Characteristics

The redcurrant (Ribes rubrum) is a deciduous shrub typically growing to a height of 0.5–1.5 meters, occasionally reaching 2 meters, with an upright, multi-stemmed growth habit that often produces suckers from the base.^[8]^[2] The stems are smooth and hairless, featuring thin bark that is brown or gray on older twigs, supporting spirally arranged leaves.^[2] In cultivation, plants exhibit a lifespan of 10–20 years, forming dense clumps through basal suckering that requires occasional management to maintain shape.^[9] The leaves are palmate, with 3–5 rounded lobes that are bluntly toothed along the margins, measuring 2.5–5 cm in length and up to 12 cm wide, on petioles 3–6 cm long.^[7] They are simple, alternate, and orbicular to suborbiculate in outline, with a deep green surface that emits a pleasant fragrance when crushed.^[2] The leaves emerge in spring and turn yellow in autumn before dropping.^[2] Flowers are small, greenish-yellow, and pendulous, borne in racemes 3–8 cm long containing 8–20 blooms, appearing in spring from April to May in temperate regions.^[10]^[11] Each flower is radially symmetrical, saucer-shaped, about 5–6 mm across, with five sepals and petals that may show subtle pinkish tinges.^[3] The fruit consists of translucent, glossy red berries, each 6–10 mm in diameter, arranged in hanging clusters of 8–20 that ripen in summer from June to July.^[10]^[12] The berries feature subtle vertical ribs and a small scar at the base, with a tart flavor attributed to high levels of citric and malic acids, rendering them slightly bitter and astringent when eaten raw.^[13]^[14]

Phytochemicals

Redcurrants (Ribes rubrum) are rich in ascorbic acid, commonly known as vitamin C, with content typically ranging from 35 to 52 mg per 100 g of fresh berries, serving as a potent antioxidant.^[15] This level contributes significantly to the fruit's overall antioxidant capacity, though it is lower than in black currants. The red pigmentation of redcurrant berries is primarily due to anthocyanins, with cyanidin-3-glucoside being a predominant compound, present at levels of approximately 0.16 to 6.57 mg per 100 g fresh weight.^[16] Total anthocyanin content varies from 12 to 22 mg per 100 g, and these compounds exhibit anti-inflammatory properties in preliminary studies.^[17] Organic acids dominate the chemical profile of redcurrants, imparting their characteristic tartness, with citric acid comprising 46–58% and malic acid 40–51% of total organic acids.^[18] Total titratable acidity ranges from 1.0 to 1.2 g per 100 g fresh weight, equivalent to about 2–3% of berry weight when expressed as citric acid equivalents in some cultivars.^[19] Polyphenols and flavonoids, including quercetin at 0.65–1.31 mg per 100 g fresh weight, form a key group of bioactive compounds in redcurrants.^[20] Total phenolic content is estimated at 100–200 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g, supporting antioxidant activity.^[21] Minor compounds such as ellagic acid (around 1.68 mg per 100 g) and catechins (1.22–8.01 mg per 100 g, primarily as (+)-catechin) are also present, with ellagic acid linked to potential anticancer effects in berry consumption studies.^[22] These phytochemicals collectively underpin the health benefits associated with redcurrant intake, such as enhanced antioxidant defense.^[23]

Taxonomy and Distribution

Taxonomy

The redcurrant is scientifically classified as Ribes rubrum L., a species within the family Grossulariaceae, which encompasses currants and gooseberries.^[24] Its full taxonomic hierarchy places it in the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, and order Saxifragales, reflecting its position among flowering plants in the eudicot clade according to the APG IV system.^[24] The genus Ribes, to which redcurrant belongs, comprises approximately 150 species of shrubs primarily native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, characterized by simple leaves and clustered flowers producing berry-like fruits.^[25] Within this genus, R. rubrum is distinguished by its non-spiny stems and bright red, translucent fruits, in contrast to species like the blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), which produces darker berries and shares similar non-spiny habit but differs in fruit color and flavor compounds.^[25] Cultivated varieties often derive from hybrids involving R. rubrum and related species like R. spicatum.^[26] Evolutionarily, redcurrant is part of the Saxifragales order, with the genus Ribes showing fossil records of leaves and fruits dating back to the Tertiary period (approximately 66 to 2.6 million years ago), indicating an ancient temperate origin; it maintains a close botanical relationship to gooseberries, such as Ribes uva-crispa, sharing pendent racemes and palmately lobed leaves typical of the genus.^[27]

Native Range and History

The redcurrant (Ribes rubrum) is native to western Europe, where it grows in damp woodlands, hedgerows, rocky places, and along riverbanks, often on calcareous soils.^[24]^[13] Its range extends from Great Britain southward to the Mediterranean region, including countries such as Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain.^[24] Cultivation began in late medieval Europe, with the first written records of domesticated redcurrants appearing in early 14th-century French texts; it was grown for food and medicinal purposes to treat ailments like fevers and digestive issues.^[28] European colonists introduced redcurrant to North America in the 17th century, with records of planting in the Massachusetts Bay Colony as early as 1629; the plant has since escaped cultivation and become naturalized in disturbed habitats across temperate regions of the continent.^[29] It is also naturalized in parts of Asia, including the Russian Federation, and in New Zealand, where it thrives in similar moist, wooded environments.^[24] The species holds a conservation status of Least Concern according to IUCN criteria, reflecting its wide distribution and adaptability, though wild populations in native habitats are declining due to agricultural expansion, urbanization, and habitat fragmentation.^[8]^[30]

Cultivation

Growing Conditions

Redcurrants (Ribes rubrum) thrive in temperate climates characterized by cold winters, typically within USDA hardiness zones 3 to 7, where they can withstand temperatures as low as -40°F (-40°C).^[6] These plants require a chilling period of 800 to 1,600 hours below 45°F (7°C) to break dormancy and promote proper fruiting, making them well-suited to regions with distinct seasonal changes but less ideal for warmer subtropical areas without sufficient winter cold.^[31] Optimal soil for redcurrant cultivation is well-drained, fertile loam or sandy loam, which prevents root rot and supports healthy growth; heavy clay soils or sites prone to waterlogging should be avoided, as they can lead to poor aeration and disease susceptibility.^[32] The preferred soil pH ranges from 6.0 to 6.5, slightly acidic to neutral, though plants tolerate a broader spectrum of 5.5 to 7.0 with amendments like lime for overly acidic conditions or sulfur for alkaline ones.^[33] Incorporating organic matter, such as compost or well-rotted manure, at planting enhances soil structure and nutrient retention in these loamy types.^[34] Redcurrants perform best in full sun to partial shade, receiving at least 6 to 8 hours of direct sunlight daily for optimal fruit production and flavor development, though they tolerate dappled afternoon shade in hotter climates to reduce stress.^[35] For planting, space bushes 1.2 to 1.5 meters (4 to 5 feet) apart within rows, with rows separated by 1.8 to 2.5 meters (6 to 8 feet) to ensure adequate air circulation, light penetration, and ease of maintenance.^[6]^[36] Consistent soil moisture is essential, particularly for young plants and during critical growth stages; aim for 25 to 50 millimeters (1 to 2 inches) of water per week, supplied through rainfall or irrigation, to maintain even wetness without saturation.^[6] Redcurrants are sensitive to drought during flowering and fruit set, when inadequate water can cause blossom drop or small berries, but established plants in mulched beds require less frequent watering except during prolonged dry periods.^[37] Fertilization should focus on balanced nutrients to support vigor without excessive vegetative growth; apply a complete NPK fertilizer, such as 10-10-10 at a rate of about 50 grams (2 ounces) per plant, in early spring before bud break, based on soil test results to avoid nitrogen overload that promotes weak shoots over fruit.^[38] Additional side-dressing with compost or low-nitrogen organic amendments in midsummer can sustain productivity, but over-fertilization, especially with high-nitrogen formulas, should be avoided to prevent reduced fruit quality and increased disease risk.^[32]

Propagation and Cultivars

Redcurrants (Ribes rubrum) are primarily propagated vegetatively to maintain desirable traits, with hardwood cuttings being the most common method. These cuttings, taken from one-year-old dormant stems in late winter or early spring, are typically 20-30 cm long and pencil-thick, with the base cut just below a bud and the top above one. They are inserted into a well-drained rooting medium such as a mix of sand and peat moss, or directly into prepared garden soil, and kept moist until roots form in 4-6 weeks, achieving rooting success rates of 70-90% under optimal conditions.^[39]^[6] Alternative propagation techniques include softwood cuttings collected in early summer from new growth, which root more quickly but require mist propagation or hormone treatment for higher success, and layering, where a low branch is bent to the ground, wounded, and buried to encourage root development while still attached to the parent plant. Division involves separating suckers or basal shoots from established plants in autumn, transplanting them immediately to new sites with minimal disturbance to the root system, a method suited for expanding plantings without additional materials.^[40] Grafting is employed occasionally, particularly onto blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) rootstocks to enhance vigor in poor or heavy soils, though it is less common due to the ease of cuttings and potential incompatibility issues.^[41] Numerous cultivars of redcurrant have been developed worldwide, with over 50 varieties available, selected primarily for improved disease resistance, berry size (often up to 1 cm in diameter), color intensity, and flavor profiles. Modern breeding programs emphasize resistance to powdery mildew (caused by Podosphaera mors-uvae) and anthracnose, incorporating traits from wild Ribes species while enhancing yield and adaptability to various climates.^[42]^[43] Popular commercial cultivars include 'Red Lake', known for its large, bright red berries, high yields of up to 5 kg per bush, and strong resistance to leaf spot and mildew, making it ideal for mechanical harvesting. 'Rovada' is favored for its late ripening (mid-July), heavy cropping on long strigs for easy picking, vigorous upright growth, and excellent flavor balance of sweetness and acidity. 'Laxton's No. 1', an early-season variety from early 20th-century English breeding, features compact bushes, medium-sized glossy red berries, and reliable production suitable for smaller gardens.^[6]^[44]^[45]

Harvesting and Yield

Redcurrants (Ribes rubrum) are typically harvested in mid-summer, from late June to August depending on the region and cultivar, when the berries have fully developed their characteristic bright red color and detach easily from the pedicels with a gentle pull.^[46] The harvest period for a single bush spans 2–3 weeks, during which berries ripen progressively along the strigs (clusters), necessitating repeated picking every 3–5 days to capture fruit at optimal ripeness and minimize losses to birds or overripening.^[46] Cultivar selection can influence exact ripening dates, with early varieties like 'Red Lake' maturing sooner than later ones such as 'Rovada'.^[32] For small-scale or home production, hand-harvesting is the standard technique, involving the careful removal of entire strigs to preserve berry integrity and reduce damage to the bush; individual berries can be stripped if needed, but this is more labor-intensive.^[32] In commercial operations, mechanical harvesters employing trunk shakers or vibrating mechanisms are used to detach clusters efficiently, though these require cultivars with uniform ripening and sturdy stems to limit bruising and debris.^[47] Proper machine calibration is essential to avoid excessive bush trauma, which could impact future yields.^[47] Mature redcurrant bushes, typically 3–5 years old, yield 2–5 kg of fruit per plant annually under good management, with variations based on cultivar vigor, soil fertility, and pruning practices.^[48] In commercial orchards, yields average 10–16 tons per hectare, achieved through dense planting (e.g., 2,000–3,000 bushes per hectare) and optimized spacing of 1–1.5 m between plants and 2.5–3 m between rows.^[49] Freshly harvested redcurrants store best at 0–4°C (32–39°F) with high humidity (90–95%), maintaining quality for 1–2 weeks in perforated containers to allow air circulation and prevent mold.^[50] For extended preservation, freezing whole strigs or individual berries preserves flavor and nutrients for up to 12 months, while processing into juices, jams, or syrups extends shelf life indefinitely.^[50] Post-harvest pruning is crucial for sustained productivity, involving the removal of older, fruited wood (typically 3–4 years old) to stimulate new spur growth on younger shoots, performed immediately after picking to avoid disease entry while the plant is still active.^[6] This renewal process, cutting back to basal buds, helps maintain bush shape, improves air circulation, and promotes yields in subsequent seasons.^[6]

Pests and Diseases

Common Pests

Redcurrant plants (Ribes rubrum) face threats from various insect and animal pests that can compromise foliage, stems, and fruit quality during the growing season. These pests primarily include sap-feeders, defoliators, and fruit consumers, often requiring vigilant monitoring and targeted interventions to minimize damage without disrupting beneficial insects. Aphids, such as the currant aphid (Cryptomyzus ribis), are small, soft-bodied sap-suckers that cluster on the undersides of young leaves and shoots, causing curling, distortion, and a reddish discoloration.^[6] Their feeding weakens plant vigor and produces honeydew that fosters sooty mold growth.^[51] Effective controls include spraying with insecticidal soaps to suffocate the pests or introducing natural predators like ladybugs (Coccinellidae).^[52] Gooseberry sawfly larvae (Nematus ribesii) act as defoliators, emerging in spring to skeletonize leaves from the edges inward, potentially stripping entire bushes and reducing photosynthetic capacity.^[53] These pale green larvae, which mimic caterpillars, feed gregariously and can complete multiple generations per season.^[54] Management relies on hand-picking for light infestations or broad-spectrum insecticides, as Bacillus thuringiensis targets lepidopteran larvae but not sawflies.^[55] Birds, particularly blackbirds (Turdus merula), target ripening fruits, pecking holes and consuming berries, which can result in near-total crop loss if unprotected.^[56] Deterrents such as fine-mesh bird netting draped tautly over bushes or reflective tape to scare them away are recommended starting when fruits color.^[56] Spider mites, notably the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), proliferate in hot, dry conditions, weaving fine silk on leaf undersides and causing stippling, yellowing, and premature leaf drop.^[45] Infestations reduce plant health and fruit yield.^[51] Control involves miticide applications or horticultural oils, alongside increasing humidity through watering to disrupt their lifecycle.^[45] Scale insects, including San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus), form armored bumps on stems and branches, extracting sap and secreting sticky honeydew that promotes ant activity and mold.^[57] Pruning infested parts and applying dormant-season horticultural oils to smother crawlers are standard remedies.^[57]

Major Diseases

One of the most prevalent fungal diseases affecting redcurrant (Ribes rubrum) is powdery mildew, caused by the fungus Podosphaera mors-uvae (synonym Sphaerotheca mors-uvae).^[58] This pathogen overwinters as dormant mycelium on infected twigs and buds, with symptoms appearing in early summer as a white, powdery coating on the upper and lower surfaces of young leaves, green shoots, and developing fruit.^[59] Infected leaves often become chlorotic, distorted, and prematurely drop, while affected fruit remains small, cracked, and of poor quality, ultimately leading to stunted plant growth and reduced yields.^[58] Management involves cultural practices such as pruning to improve air circulation and removing infected tips in early spring, alongside applications of sulfur-based fungicides during the dormant season or at the green-tip stage; planting resistant cultivars like 'Red Lake' or 'Cherry' is also recommended to minimize incidence.^[59] Anthracnose, induced by the fungus Pseudopeziza ribis, poses a significant threat to redcurrant foliage and fruit, particularly in cool, wet conditions that favor spore dispersal.^[60] Initial symptoms manifest as small, circular brown spots (1-3 mm) with grayish centers on leaves, often surrounded by a yellow halo, progressing to widespread leaf yellowing, scorching, and early defoliation by midsummer.^[61] On fruit, pinpoint brown spots appear, causing berries to shrivel, crack, and drop prematurely, which can severely impact harvest.^[62] The fungus overwinters in fallen leaves, so effective control includes raking and destroying debris in autumn, pruning for better airflow, and applying copper-based or multi-site fungicides like mancozeb at bud break and repeat sprays during wet periods.^[61] Verticillium wilt, caused by the soil-borne fungus Verticillium dahliae, is a destructive vascular disease that affects redcurrant roots and vascular tissues, leading to gradual plant decline.^[63] Symptoms typically emerge in early summer with wilting and yellowing of lower leaves, followed by browning and dieback of shoots from the base upward, often with vascular discoloration visible in cross-sections of stems.^[64] Once established in the soil, the pathogen persists for years via microsclerotia, making infected plants susceptible to stress and eventual death, though redcurrants may show partial resistance compared to other Ribes species.^[63] There is no chemical cure, so prevention relies on using disease-free planting stock, crop rotation with non-hosts for 3-5 years, and selecting resistant rootstocks; severely affected plants should be removed and destroyed to limit soil contamination.^[64] Coral spot, resulting from infection by the fungus Nectria cinnabarina (now Neonectria ditissima), targets weakened or wounded wood on redcurrant stems and branches, exacerbating dieback in stressed plants.^[65] Early signs include sunken, discolored cankers at pruning wounds or branch crotches, progressing to twig girdling and death, with diagnostic bright pink to orange pustules (spore masses) forming on the dead bark in spring or after rain.^[65] This secondary pathogen rarely kills healthy bushes outright but can reduce vigor and productivity if infections spread.^[66] Control focuses on sanitation by promptly pruning and disposing of infected material well below visible symptoms during dry weather, promoting plant health through proper spacing and fertilization, and avoiding wounds; no effective fungicides are available for established infections.^[65] White pine blister rust, caused by the fungus Cronartium ribicola, is a heteroecious rust disease that requires Ribes species as alternate hosts to complete its life cycle, particularly impacting redcurrant in North America where it threatens eastern white pine (Pinus strobus). Symptoms on redcurrant include yellow spots on the upper leaf surface turning to orange powdery aecia on the undersides in spring, followed by stem swellings or cankers that girdle branches, leading to dieback. While redcurrants are generally less susceptible than blackcurrants, infections can weaken plants and reduce yields. Management involves selecting resistant cultivars such as 'Consort' or 'Red Lake', removing nearby white pines if possible, and applying fungicides like triadimefon during early infection stages; in some regions, regulations restrict planting Ribes near white pines to prevent spread.^[67] Viral diseases, particularly reversion disease associated with Blackcurrant reversion virus (BRV) or related nepoviruses, can subtly diminish redcurrant vigor, though symptoms are less pronounced than in blackcurrants. Infected plants exhibit reduced leaf size, fewer flowers with altered pigmentation, and overall stunting, leading to lower yields over time without acute chlorosis or necrosis. The virus spreads via grafting or potentially through vectors like mites, persisting latently in propagation material.^[68] Prevention is key, involving propagation from certified virus-free stock and rogueing symptomatic plants; no curative treatments exist, but selecting tolerant cultivars helps maintain productivity.

Uses

Culinary Applications

Redcurrants are prized in culinary preparations for their tart flavor, derived from high levels of organic acids, and their natural pectin content, which facilitates setting in preserves without additional thickeners.^[69]^[70] In jams and jellies, redcurrants' pectin levels, typically around 0.5–1% of the fruit's weight, enable a firm gel when combined with sugar in a classic 1:1 ratio by weight, as seen in traditional English redcurrant jelly recipes where the fruit is simmered, strained, and boiled with granulated sugar to yield a clear, ruby-red preserve ideal for serving with roast meats or glazing pastries.^[71]^[72] For sauces and preserves, redcurrants provide a tangy counterpoint to rich meats; they are often reduced with vinegar, port, or stock to create accompaniments like Cumberland sauce, a British classic featuring redcurrant jelly, orange zest, mustard, and spices, commonly paired with venison or game birds for its sweet-sour balance.^[73]^[74] In desserts, redcurrants feature in baked goods and chilled treats, where their acidity tempers sweetness; they are incorporated into pies and tarts with pastry crusts, blended into sorbets for a refreshing tartness, or layered in summer puddings with bread and other soft fruits to absorb juices during overnight pressing.^[75]^[76] Beverages highlight redcurrants' versatility, from fresh juices and concentrated cordials diluted with water for summer drinks, to liqueurs like a crème de cassis variant where the berries are infused in spirits with sugar for months, yielding a ruby syrup for cocktails; they can also be fermented into light wines by mashing the fruit, adding sugar and yeast, and aging the must for several weeks to months.^[77]^[78] Internationally, redcurrants appear in Scandinavian cuisine as a key ingredient in rødgrød med fløde, a Danish porridge-like dessert where the berries are cooked with sugar and thickened with potato starch or semolina, then chilled and served with cream.^[79]

Nutritional Profile

Red currants (Ribes rubrum) are a low-calorie fruit, providing 56 kcal per 100 g of fresh berries, making them a nutrient-dense addition to diets focused on weight management.^[80] The macronutrient profile includes 13.8 g of carbohydrates, of which approximately 7.4 g are sugars and 4.3 g is dietary fiber, alongside 1.4 g of protein and 0.2 g of fat.^[80] This composition contributes to a low glycemic index of around 25, attributed to the fiber and organic acids that slow carbohydrate absorption and help maintain stable blood sugar levels.^[81] In terms of micronutrients, red currants are particularly rich in vitamin C, offering 41 mg per 100 g (46% of the Daily Value based on a 90 mg reference intake), which supports immune function and antioxidant defense.^[80] They also contain smaller amounts of vitamin B6 (0.07 mg), vitamin K (11 mcg), and folate (8 mcg).^[80] Key minerals include 275 mg of potassium for electrolyte balance, 33 mg of calcium, 1 mg of iron, and just 1 mg of sodium, resulting in a low-sodium profile suitable for cardiovascular health.^[80]

Nutrient	Amount per 100 g	% Daily Value*
Calories	56 kcal	3%
Total Carbohydrates	13.8 g	5%
Dietary Fiber	4.3 g	15%
Sugars	7.4 g	-
Protein	1.4 g	3%
Total Fat	0.2 g	0%
Vitamin C	41 mg	46%
Potassium	275 mg	6%
Calcium	33 mg	3%
Iron	1 mg	6%

*Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000-calorie diet. Data sourced from USDA FoodData Central.^[80] Compared to other common berries, red currants offer higher vitamin C content than blueberries (9.7 mg per 100 g) while having a similar calorie count (57 kcal per 100 g for blueberries).^[82] Bioactive compounds in red currants may enhance the bioavailability of these nutrients, though detailed analysis falls under phytochemical studies.

Medicinal and Other Uses

Redcurrants contain significant levels of anthocyanins, which exhibit strong antioxidant properties by reducing oxidative stress in the body. These compounds help neutralize free radicals and have been linked to potential cardiovascular benefits, including the reduction of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in studies on berry-derived anthocyanins.^[42]^[83] Traditionally, redcurrant leaves have been employed in European folk medicine to alleviate symptoms of gout and rheumatism, attributed to their anti-inflammatory effects. Modern research on Ribes species, including redcurrant, supports these uses, showing that extracts can modulate inflammatory processes and may offer relief for conditions like arthritis through bioactive polyphenols.^[84]^[85] Beyond medicinal applications, redcurrants serve ornamental purposes in landscaping, where their compact bushes are planted as hedges or border plants for their attractive foliage and vibrant berry clusters. Redcurrants are generally recognized as safe for consumption, with no reported toxicities; however, their high acidity can irritate the stomach or exacerbate acid reflux in sensitive individuals.^[42]^[86]