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Potassium

Potassium is a chemical element with the atomic number 19 and chemical symbol K, belonging to the alkali metal group in the periodic table.^[1] It appears as a soft, silvery-white solid that tarnishes rapidly upon exposure to air due to its high reactivity, and it ignites spontaneously in moist air while reacting violently with water to produce hydrogen gas and potassium hydroxide.^[1] With a low density of 0.89 g/cm³, it is one of the lightest metals after lithium, and its melting point is 63.38°C, making it malleable enough to be cut with a knife at room temperature.^[1] The element was first isolated in 1807 by English chemist Sir Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of potassium hydroxide (potash), derived from wood ashes.^[1] Its name originates from the English "potash," reflecting its historical extraction from potash deposits, while the symbol K comes from the Latin kalium, used in early chemical nomenclature.^[1] Potassium occurs naturally as the seventh most abundant element in Earth's crust, comprising about 2.4% by mass, primarily in silicate minerals such as feldspars (e.g., orthoclase) and micas, with economic deposits in evaporites like sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (KMgCl₃·6H₂O).^[1] Commercially, it is produced by electrolysis of molten potassium chloride or through the reaction of potassium chloride with sodium metal.^[2] Potassium plays a critical role in numerous industrial applications due to its chemical reactivity and properties.^[1] It is a key component in fertilizers, where potash compounds like potassium chloride enhance crop yields by supporting plant growth and disease resistance.^[3] Other uses include the production of soaps and detergents from potassium hydroxide, glass manufacturing, and explosives from potassium nitrate.^[1] Alloys such as NaK (sodium-potassium) serve as heat-transfer fluids in nuclear reactors because of their low melting points and high thermal conductivity.^[1] Biologically, potassium is an essential macronutrient for both plants and animals, acting as the primary intracellular cation to maintain osmotic balance and membrane potentials.^[4] In humans, it regulates fluid volume, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contractions, and heartbeat, with the body containing about 98% inside cells and an adequate intake of 3,400 mg/day for adult men and 2,600 mg/day for adult women (as of 2019) to prevent deficiencies linked to hypertension and kidney issues.^[4] For plants, it facilitates water uptake, enzyme activation, photosynthesis, and stress resistance, with deficiencies causing wilting and reduced yields; it is found in most soils but requires supplementation in agriculture.^[3] The radioactive isotope ⁴⁰K, present in trace amounts (0.012% of natural potassium), contributes to natural background radiation and is used in geological dating and medical imaging.^[1]

Properties

Physical properties

Potassium (K) is a chemical element with atomic number 19 and a standard atomic weight of 39.0983 u. Its ground-state electron configuration is [Ar] 4s¹, consisting of a noble gas core with a single valence electron in the 4s orbital, which contributes to its metallic bonding and physical characteristics.^[5]^[2] Elemental potassium appears as a soft, silvery-white metal that is highly reactive with air, rapidly tarnishing to a dull grayish-white surface due to the formation of a thin oxide layer. This metal is one of the lightest among elements, with a density of 0.862 g/cm³ at 20°C, allowing a cubic centimeter to float on water. Potassium exhibits exceptional malleability and ductility for a metal, enabling it to be easily shaped or drawn into wires; fresh-cut surfaces can be sliced with a knife, revealing its butter-like consistency at room temperature.^[5]^[2] The melting point of potassium is 63.5°C, and its boiling point is 759°C, indicating a relatively low thermal stability compared to many metals. It possesses high thermal conductivity of 102.5 W/m·K and electrical conductivity corresponding to a resistivity of 72 nΩ·m at 20°C, both attributable to the free movement of delocalized valence electrons in its metallic lattice. The specific heat capacity is 0.757 J/g·K, reflecting the energy required to raise its temperature, which is moderate for alkali metals.^[5]^[6] At standard conditions, potassium adopts a body-centered cubic crystal structure with no stable allotropic forms. Its phase diagram features straightforward transitions: solid below 63.5°C at atmospheric pressure, liquid up to 759°C, and vapor thereafter, without intermediate solid phases or complex eutectics at ambient pressures.^[5]^[2]

Chemical properties

Potassium, as a member of the alkali metals in group 1 of the periodic table, is highly electropositive and predominantly forms compounds in the +1 oxidation state by losing its single valence electron to achieve a stable noble gas configuration.^[7] The K⁺ cation has an ionic radius of 138 pm, which contributes to its low charge density.^[8] This low charge density is reflected in its first ionization energy of 418.8 kJ/mol, one of the lowest among the elements, facilitating easy electron removal.^[9] Additionally, the standard electrode potential for the K⁺/K couple is -2.93 V, underscoring its role as a potent reducing agent capable of reducing many compounds to lower oxidation states.^[10] Potassium reacts vigorously with water in a highly exothermic process, producing potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas, often with ignition of the hydrogen due to the generated heat:

$2\mathrm{K(s)} + 2\mathrm{H_2O(l)} \rightarrow 2\mathrm{KOH(aq)} + \mathrm{H_2(g)}

This reaction is more intense than that of sodium but less so than rubidium, highlighting the trend of increasing reactivity down the alkali metal group.^[7] With oxygen, potassium tarnishes rapidly in air and, when heated, burns to form primarily potassium superoxide (KO₂) at higher temperatures, while lower temperatures favor the peroxide (K₂O₂); a mixture of these oxides, along with some monoxide (K₂O), is typically observed.^[11] Potassium also reacts exothermically with halogens to yield halides, such as:

$2\mathrm{K(s)} + \mathrm{Cl_2(g)} \rightarrow 2\mathrm{KCl(s)}

This combustion is vigorous and produces a characteristic lilac flame.^[7] Salts of the K⁺ ion exhibit generally high solubility in water, attributable to the ion's large size and consequent low charge density, which minimizes lattice energy and enhances hydration.^[12] Unlike smaller alkali metal ions like Li⁺, which can form more stable complexes due to higher charge density, K⁺ rarely forms coordination complexes, as its diffuse electron cloud and weak Lewis acidity limit strong interactions with ligands./20%3A_Periodic_Trends_and_the_s-Block_Elements/20.04%3A_The_Alkali_Metals_(Group_1))

Isotopes

Potassium has three naturally occurring isotopes: ^{39}\mathrm{K}, which accounts for 93.2581% of terrestrial potassium and is stable; ^{41}\mathrm{K}, comprising 6.7302% and also stable; and ^{40}\mathrm{K}, a radioactive isotope with an abundance of 0.0117%.^[13] The isotope ^{40}\mathrm{K} undergoes radioactive decay primarily through two modes: beta minus decay to stable ^{40}\mathrm{Ca} (branching ratio 89.3%) and electron capture to stable ^{40}\mathrm{Ar} (branching ratio 10.7%), with a half-life of $1.25 \times 10^{9} years.^[14] This long half-life and the accumulation of daughter products enable precise radiometric applications, particularly in geochronology. The decay of ^{40}\mathrm{K} to ^{40}\mathrm{Ar} forms the basis of the potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating method, a key technique for determining the age of volcanic rocks and minerals older than approximately 100,000 years.^[15] By measuring the ratio of ^{40}\mathrm{K} to ^{40}\mathrm{Ar} in a sample, geologists can calculate the time elapsed since the material solidified, as argon is trapped within the crystal lattice post-formation. The method's reliability stems from the relatively high natural abundance of potassium in rocks and the long half-life, allowing detection of decay over billions of years.^[16] In addition to the natural isotopes, potassium has 25 known isotopes in total, ranging from ^{28}\mathrm{K} to ^{60}\mathrm{K}, most of which are artificial and short-lived.^[17] For example, ^{42}\mathrm{K}, produced via neutron irradiation, has a half-life of 12.4 hours and decays primarily by beta emission; it serves as a radioactive tracer in biological and medical studies to track potassium uptake and distribution in living systems.^[18] Recent advancements have leveraged the stable ^{41}\mathrm{K} isotope in quantum physics research, particularly for creating Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs). In 2023, NASA's Cold Atom Laboratory (CAL) on the International Space Station achieved the first dual-species BEC using ^{41}\mathrm{K} and ^{87}\mathrm{Rb} atoms in microgravity, enabling prolonged observation of quantum interactions free from gravitational interference; this milestone, detailed in subsequent 2024 publications, advances studies in quantum simulation and fundamental physics.^[19]^[20]

History

Etymology

The name "potassium" derives from the term "potash," an early source of potassium compounds obtained by leaching wood ashes in water and evaporating the solution in iron pots, a process that produced a residue rich in potassium carbonate.^[21] The word "potash" itself originated in the late 16th century as a calque of the Dutch "potasschen" or "pot-asch," literally meaning "pot ash," reflecting this traditional extraction method used in Europe for producing alkali salts from plant materials.^[22] In early chemistry, potash was commonly referred to as "fixed alkali" to distinguish it from "volatile alkali" (ammonium carbonate), highlighting its stability when heated and its role as a key substance in analytical and industrial processes before the element's isolation.^[23] The element's chemical symbol, K, stems from "kalium," a Latinized form adopted in continental Europe for the metal derived from potash. This term traces back to the Arabic "al-qalyah," meaning "calcined ashes" or "roasted plant ashes," particularly from saltwort (Salsola kali), which was used to produce alkali in medieval times; the root "qali" relates to frying or roasting in a pan.^[24] British chemist Humphry Davy first isolated the metal in 1807 by electrolysis of potash and coined the English name "potassium" to emphasize its origin from this compound, diverging from the Latin-based "natrium" he used for sodium (symbol Na), which established the dual naming convention still seen in English versus international nomenclature.^[25]^[2] This linguistic split arose because Davy prioritized descriptive English terms for elements isolated from familiar substances, while "kalium" persisted in Germanic and Romance languages due to earlier alchemical traditions.^[26]

Potash

Potash, primarily in the form of potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃), was produced by leaching wood ashes with water, a practice that dates back to ancient times, with the earliest records from the Sumerian civilization around 2500 BCE for uses like wool cleaning.^[27] This method involved burning hardwood to create ashes, which were then soaked and filtered to yield a lye solution that could be evaporated to obtain the carbonate. By the 1st century AD, potash found applications in soap production, where it was combined with animal fats through saponification, and in glassmaking as a flux to lower the melting point of silica, as described by the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder in his accounts of alkaline materials derived from ashes.^[28]^[29]^[30] Commercial production of potash expanded significantly in the 16th to 18th centuries, sourced from wood ashes in forested regions or from burning kelp along coastal areas, particularly in Scotland and Ireland.^[31] The refined form, known as pearl ash, was obtained by calcining the crude potash in kilns to produce a purer, pearl-like substance used as a leavening agent in baking—reacting with acids to release carbon dioxide—and as a key ingredient in gunpowder manufacturing for its role in producing saltpeter.^[32]^[33] In the 18th century, chemists such as Andreas Sigismund Marggraf began recognizing potash as a distinct alkali from soda ash, employing flame tests, where potash produces a violet coloration and soda a yellow one.^[34] This distinction, first systematically outlined by Marggraf in the 1760s, laid groundwork for understanding their chemical differences. Economically, potash played a vital role in colonial trade, with North American colonies exporting large quantities—reaching over 7,000 tons annually by the mid-18th century—to Europe for industrial uses, contributing significantly to the regional economy amid land-clearing efforts.^[32]^[33]

Metal

Metallic potassium was first isolated in 1807 by the English chemist Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution in London. Using a voltaic pile—a primitive battery consisting of stacked copper and zinc disks separated by electrolyte-soaked cloth—Davy performed electrolysis on very dry molten potash (potassium hydroxide, KOH), collecting the resulting silvery metal at the cathode. This marked the first successful isolation of an alkali metal through electrolytic decomposition, revealing a soft, low-density substance that rapidly tarnished in air.^[35]^[36] Davy named the element "potassium" to draw a parallel with "sodium," which he had isolated similarly from soda ash earlier that year, emphasizing their shared metallic character derived from alkaline compounds. He confirmed potassium's status as a fundamental element by showing it resisted further decomposition under various chemical treatments and exhibited distinct properties, such as vigorous reactivity with water to produce hydrogen gas and heat. This discovery, announced in a public lecture on November 19, 1807, electrified the scientific community and solidified Davy's reputation.^[37]^[38] The extreme reactivity of potassium posed significant challenges for early 19th-century production and handling; it ignites spontaneously in moist air, forming oxides and peroxides, necessitating storage under protective liquids like naphtha or mercury amalgams to prevent oxidation. Production remained limited to small-scale electrolysis of potash in laboratory settings, yielding only grams of the metal at a time, until industrial-scale methods emerged in the 20th century. Building on potash as the key precursor, these early efforts highlighted the element's elusive nature.^[39]^[40] The isolation of potassium contributed substantially to the evolving atomic theory, providing concrete evidence of indivisible elements beyond traditional compounds and aiding Jöns Jacob Berzelius in formulating the modern system of chemical symbols—he assigned "K" from the Latin kalium in his 1814 nomenclature. In 1818, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac further validated its elemental properties through precise volumetric analyses of its compounds, reinforcing the quantitative foundations of atomic weights.^[41]^[24]

Occurrence

Geological occurrence

Potassium constitutes approximately 2.6% by weight of the Earth's crust, ranking it as the seventh most abundant element overall.^[42] It primarily exists as the K⁺ cation incorporated into silicate minerals, with feldspars such as orthoclase (KAlSi₃O₈) and micas forming the dominant host phases; these minerals collectively account for a significant portion of the crustal potassium reservoir.^[43] For commercial purposes, potassium is extracted mainly from evaporite minerals deposited in ancient inland seas, including sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (KMgCl₃·6H₂O). Major deposits occur in the Dead Sea region, where carnallite-rich brines yield substantial potash, and in Saskatchewan, Canada, which provides about 30% of global potash supply through vast sylvite-bearing formations in the Prairie Evaporite.^[44]^[45] Seawater holds roughly 400 mg/L of potassium (0.4 g/L), the second-highest concentration among major cations after sodium, rendering ocean brines and hypersaline salt lakes viable secondary sources for extraction.^[46] Potassium participates in the geochemical cycle through weathering processes that liberate K⁺ from primary minerals into soils, rivers, and ultimately the oceans, where it accumulates or precipitates in sediments. Continental volcanic rocks typically exhibit higher potassium contents than oceanic basalts, influencing the distribution and availability of potassium in terrestrial versus marine environments.^[47]

Cosmic occurrence

Potassium isotopes are primarily synthesized through explosive nucleosynthesis in core-collapse supernovae, with the stable isotopes ^{39}K and ^{41}K receiving significant contributions from both the slow neutron-capture process (s-process) in asymptotic giant branch stars and the rapid neutron-capture process (r-process) during supernova explosions.^[48] These processes occur under extreme conditions of high temperature and neutron flux, enabling the buildup of potassium nuclei from lighter seed elements like argon and calcium.^[49] The r-process, in particular, dominates the production of neutron-rich isotopes like ^{41}K in the explosive outflows of massive stars. In the broader cosmic context, potassium exhibits an abundance of log ε(K) = 5.10 (approximately 126 atoms per million hydrogen atoms by number) in the solar system.^[50] This element is less abundant than sodium (log ε(Na) = 6.24). It is readily detected in the spectra of cool stars via prominent absorption lines of neutral potassium (K I) at wavelengths such as 7665 Å and 7699 Å, which arise from electronic transitions in the stellar atmospheres and provide insights into elemental distributions across galactic populations.^[51] Such observations confirm potassium's role as a tracer of stellar evolution and chemical enrichment in the universe. Meteorites, particularly chondrites, preserve potassium at concentrations around 0.1 wt%, serving as primitive records of solar system formation.^[52] This potassium enables geochronology through the ^{40}K-^{40}Ar decay system, which dates meteorite cooling and exposure histories, with ^{40}K decay providing a brief link to isotopic studies.^[53] On planetary bodies, potassium enrichment is notable in the Moon's crust, where KREEP (potassium-rare earth elements-phosphorus) terrains exhibit elevated levels—up to several times the bulk lunar average—resulting from late-stage magma ocean differentiation that concentrated incompatible elements like potassium.^[54] Similarly, NASA's Curiosity rover has detected potassium in clay-bearing sediments within Gale Crater on Mars, indicating its incorporation into phyllosilicates formed during ancient aqueous alteration processes.^[55] Traces of potassium in the interstellar medium are inferred from atomic absorption features, complementing radio observations of associated species like neutral hydrogen.^[56]

Commercial production

Mining

Potash is primarily extracted from underground deposits of sylvite (KCl), a potassium-bearing mineral formed in ancient evaporite basins. The two principal mining methods are conventional underground mining and solution mining, both commonly employed in major producing regions. Conventional underground mining involves sinking vertical shafts to depths typically exceeding 1,000 meters and using mechanical cutters to excavate horizontal panels or rooms in the ore bed, followed by transport to the surface via hoists. This approach dominates in Saskatchewan, Canada, home to the world's largest potash operations, which collectively produce over 20 million tonnes of potash annually as of 2023.^[57]^[58]^[44] Solution mining, an alternative for deeper or irregularly shaped deposits, entails drilling wells into the formation and injecting heated water or brine to selectively dissolve sylvite while leaving less soluble halite (NaCl) behind; the resulting potash-rich brine is then pumped to the surface for evaporation and crystallization. This method reduces surface disturbance and is increasingly adopted for its cost efficiency and lower labor requirements, particularly in Saskatchewan where deposits reach up to 1,800 meters deep. Globally, Canada leads production with approximately 32% of the total as of 2023, followed by Russia at 20% and Belarus at 12%, drawing from vast evaporite deposits such as Canada's Devonian Prairie Formation and the Permian basins in Russia and Europe.^[59]^[60] Following extraction, potash ore undergoes beneficiation at the mine site, primarily through froth flotation, where crushed ore is conditioned with reagents to make sylvite particles hydrophobic, allowing them to attach to air bubbles and float to the surface while halite sinks. This process exploits differences in mineral surface chemistry rather than density alone, producing muriate of potash (MOP, or KCl) at purities exceeding 95% for commercial use.^[61]^[62] Potash mining presents environmental challenges, including surface subsidence from roof collapse in conventional operations and potential contamination or depletion of local aquifers due to brine injection and groundwater infiltration. In the European Union, 2020s regulations under the Green Deal promote sustainable practices, mandating stricter monitoring of emissions, waste brine disposal, and habitat restoration to minimize long-term ecological impacts.^[63]^[64]

Chemical extraction

Potassium compounds are chemically extracted from brines derived from mined potash ores through processes that yield high-purity salts suitable for industrial and agricultural use. In the refining of potash, potassium chloride (KCl) is produced by concentrating brine via evaporation in solar ponds or mechanical evaporators, followed by selective crystallization to separate KCl from other salts like sodium chloride (NaCl). This process exploits the solubility differences, with carnallite (KCl·MgCl₂·6H₂O) often formed as an intermediate that is decomposed and crystallized to obtain granular or standard-grade KCl with purity exceeding 98%.^[65] For potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄, or sulfate of potash, SOP), the Mannheim process is employed, involving the reaction of refined KCl with sulfuric acid in a rotary furnace at temperatures around 500–600°C. The net reaction is 2KCl + H₂SO₄ → K₂SO₄ + 2HCl, where the hydrogen chloride byproduct is captured for reuse, and the solid K₂SO₄ is cooled and purified to achieve high-grade product for chloride-sensitive crops. This method accounts for a significant portion of SOP production, offering high purity but requiring corrosion-resistant equipment due to the acidic conditions.^[66] Metallic potassium is obtained through electrolysis of a molten mixture of KCl and NaCl (typically in a 50:50 ratio) at approximately 850°C, using a modified Downs cell design to lower the electrolyte's melting point and prevent pure KCl solidification. At the cathode, a sodium-potassium alloy (NaK) is deposited due to the co-reduction of K⁺ and Na⁺ ions, while chlorine gas evolves at the graphite anode; the alloy is then fractionated by vacuum distillation to isolate potassium vapor, which condenses to yield metal of 99.95% purity. This energy-intensive process consumes 15–20 kWh per kg of potassium, primarily in China and the United States.^[67]^[68]^[69] An older alternative involved thermal reduction of molten KCl with sodium metal at high temperatures, following the reaction 3KCl + 4Na → 3NaCl + K + NaK₂, but this method has become obsolete due to higher costs and safety concerns compared to electrolytic approaches.^[67]

Cation identification

The identification of the potassium cation (K⁺) is crucial for quality control in the production of potassium-based fertilizers and chemicals, as well as for environmental and geological analyses. Common laboratory methods exploit the unique spectral and chemical properties of K⁺, while field techniques enable rapid on-site quantification. These approaches provide detection limits from parts per million (ppm) to trace levels, with typical accuracy of ±1% in industrial production settings.^[70] A classical qualitative test for K⁺ is the flame test, where a sample is introduced into a Bunsen burner flame, producing a distinctive lilac-violet color. This coloration arises from the excitation and emission of electrons in potassium atoms, with the primary emission line at 766.5 nm. The test is highly characteristic for K⁺ due to its unique spectral signature, though trace sodium contamination can slightly mask the color.^[71]^[72] For quantitative analysis, atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and flame emission spectroscopy are widely used, targeting the 766.5 nm resonance line of potassium. In AAS, the sample is aspirated into an air-acetylene flame, where free atoms absorb light from a hollow-cathode lamp, enabling detection down to 0.03 ppm with a linear range up to several ppm. Flame emission spectroscopy measures the intensity of emitted light at the same wavelength, offering similar ppm-level sensitivity but is more prone to flame instability. Both techniques are effective for trace K⁺ in solutions, though ionization interferences require suppression with cesium salts.^[73] Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) provides superior multi-element analysis, including K⁺, by ionizing samples in a plasma and detecting ions via mass-to-charge ratio. High-resolution ICP-MS resolves interferences like ⁴⁰Ar³⁹K from ⁴⁰Ca, achieving detection limits below 1 ppb (0.001 ppm) and precision of 0.05–0.7% relative standard deviation, making it ideal for low-level quantification in complex matrices such as water or extracts.^[74] Precipitation tests offer a classical gravimetric approach for higher concentrations. K⁺ reacts with sodium tetraphenylborate (NaBPh₄) in a weakly alkaline medium to form an insoluble precipitate of potassium tetraphenylborate, which is filtered, dried, and weighed for quantification. This method, standardized for fertilizers, includes additions of EDTA and formaldehyde to enhance selectivity and prevent co-precipitation, yielding accurate results for K⁺ contents above 1%.^[75] Modern electrochemical methods employ ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) based on valinomycin membranes, which respond to K⁺ activity via the Nernst equation: E = E^0 + \frac{RT}{zF} \ln a_{K^+}, where E is the potential, a_{K^+} is the K⁺ activity, and other terms are constants. These electrodes exhibit near-Nernstian slopes (58–60 mV per decade) and high selectivity over Na⁺ (selectivity coefficient k_{K,Na} \approx 10^{-4}), enabling measurements in soils and water from 10⁻⁶ to 1 M with minimal sample preparation. In field applications, particularly mining assays, portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometers detect K⁺ non-destructively by measuring characteristic X-ray emissions excited by a primary X-ray source. Handheld units like the Niton XL5 Plus achieve ppm-level sensitivity for K in potash ores and soils, facilitating real-time grade control and resource mapping without laboratory transport.^[76] Despite their reliability, these methods face limitations from spectral or chemical interferences, notably from rubidium (Rb⁺) and cesium (Cs⁺), which have similar ionization potentials and emission lines near 766 nm, potentially causing overestimation in AAS and emission spectroscopy. In production environments, matrix matching and ionization suppressants mitigate these, maintaining overall accuracy within ±1%.^[77]

Compounds

Inorganic compounds

Inorganic compounds of potassium primarily consist of ionic salts featuring the K⁺ cation paired with various anions, resulting in high solubility in water, as the lower lattice energy of potassium salts compared to those of smaller alkali metals outweighs the weaker hydration energy of the larger K⁺ ion.^[5] These compounds exhibit predominantly ionic bonding, with K⁺ typically adopting coordination numbers of 6 to 8 in crystalline structures, often forming octahedral or higher polyhedra with surrounding anions or oxygen atoms.^[78] Solubility trends among potassium salts are generally high, with most exceeding 30 g/100 mL in water at room temperature, though exceptions like certain phosphates show lower values.^[79] Potassium chloride (KCl) adopts a rock salt structure, characterized by a face-centered cubic lattice where each K⁺ ion is octahedrally coordinated to six Cl⁻ ions, with lattice parameter a = 6.29 Å.^[80] It is highly soluble in water, dissolving at approximately 34 g/100 mL at 20 °C, and can be prepared by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with potassium hydroxide.^[80] This compound melts at 770–773 °C and sublimes at 1500 °C, reflecting strong ionic interactions.^[80] Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is a strong base that dissociates completely in water, exhibiting deliquescent and caustic properties due to its hygroscopic nature and reactivity with moisture and metals.^[81] It is prepared industrially via the chloralkali process, involving electrolysis of potassium chloride brine, where hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions (forming KOH) are produced at the cathode and chlorine gas at the anode.^[81] With exceptional solubility of 121 g/100 g water at 25 °C, it generates significant heat upon dissolution.^[81] Potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) is a hygroscopic white salt that forms hydrates and is produced by carbonating potassium hydroxide with carbon dioxide or by refining potash ores.^[82] It dissolves readily at 111 g/100 g water at 25 °C, with the anhydrous form crystallizing in a monoclinic structure.^[82] Other notable inorganic potassium compounds include potassium nitrate (KNO₃), a white crystalline oxidizer soluble at 35 g/100 mL water at 25 °C, historically key in gunpowder formulations for providing oxygen during combustion.^[83] Potassium permanganate (KMnO₄), a potent oxidant, is synthesized by fusing manganese dioxide with potassium hydroxide and an oxidizer like potassium chlorate, yielding the characteristic purple crystals with tetrahedral MnO₄⁻ anions.^[84] Potassium cyanide (KCN), highly toxic and soluble at 72 g/100 mL water at 25 °C, features simple ionic bonding but releases hazardous HCN gas in acidic conditions.^[85]

Organic and complex compounds

Potassium carboxylates, such as potassium acetate (\ce{CH3COOK}), are salts formed from potassium hydroxide and carboxylic acids, exhibiting high solubility in both water (approximately 269 g/100 mL at 20°C) and alcohol, which facilitates their use in various applications.^[86] These compounds serve as potassium supplements in medical contexts, including formulations to counteract hypokalemia induced by diuretics, where they help maintain electrolyte balance during treatment for conditions like hypertension and edema.^[87] Organopotassium compounds are generally rare due to the high reactivity of the potassium-carbon bond, but certain alkoxides like potassium tert-butoxide (\ce{KOC(CH3)3}) are stable enough for synthetic utility. This compound acts as a strong, sterically hindered non-nucleophilic base, promoting E2 elimination reactions to favor Hofmann products over Zaitsev isomers in organic synthesis.^[88] Potassium ions form selective complexes with macrocyclic ligands such as crown ethers and cryptands, which are crucial in phase-transfer catalysis and ion transport. For instance, the [2.2.2]-cryptand, a three-dimensional bicyclic ligand, binds K^+ with high selectivity due to its cavity size of approximately 1.4 Å, closely matching the ionic radius of potassium (1.38 Å), enabling efficient encapsulation in methanol-water solutions.^[89] These complexes facilitate the solubilization of potassium salts in nonpolar solvents, enhancing reaction rates in biphasic systems. In zeolites and clays, potassium-exchanged forms serve as ion sieves for selective cation separation and adsorption. Potassium-substituted zeolite A, for example, exhibits altered pore structures that improve selectivity for larger cations like cesium during ion exchange, leveraging the framework's microporous architecture for applications in environmental remediation and catalysis.^[90] Similarly, potassium-intercalated clays enhance swelling and ion mobility, aiding in soil conditioning and pollutant removal.^[91] Potassium superoxide (\ce{KO2}), a yellow solid with a distorted fluorite structure, is employed in rebreathers for oxygen generation and carbon dioxide scrubbing in confined environments like submarines and spacecraft. It reacts with exhaled moisture and CO_2 to produce O_2 and KOH, providing breathable air for extended periods without external oxygen supply.^[92] These organic and complex potassium compounds are typically synthesized via metathesis reactions, such as the neutralization of carboxylic acids with potassium hydroxide: \ce{RCOOH + KOH -> RCOOK + H2O}, which proceeds quantitatively in aqueous or alcoholic media to yield the desired salts.^[93] For coordination complexes, ligand exchange or direct binding in solution is common, often under inert conditions to preserve reactivity.^[94]

Uses

Agricultural uses

Potassium, primarily in the form of potash fertilizers such as potassium chloride (KCl) or potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄), accounts for 90-95% of global potash production and serves as the main driver of commercial demand.^[95]^[44] These fertilizers enhance crop yields by facilitating water uptake and retention in plant tissues, activating enzymes essential for metabolic processes, and bolstering disease resistance through improved plant vigor.^[3]^[96] Typical application rates for cereals range from 50 to 200 kg K₂O per hectare, depending on soil conditions and crop needs, to maintain optimal potassium levels.^[97] Potassium deficiency manifests as leaf scorching or marginal yellowing on older leaves and weakened stems due to reduced turgor and structural support.^[98]^[99] Global consumption of potash reached approximately 37.5 million tons of K₂O equivalent in 2023 and 38.8 million tons in 2024, with the highest usage in India and China to support intensive rice and wheat production in South and East Asia, respectively.^[100]^[101] In precision farming, variable-rate technology applies potassium based on soil variability maps, optimizing fertilizer use and reducing waste. For specific crops, potassium fertilization increases starch and sugar content in potatoes by promoting sucrose-to-starch conversion and dry matter accumulation, while in tomatoes, it enhances fruit quality and sugar levels for better taste and yield.^[102]^[103] Sustainable practices include recycling potassium from crop residues, which often contain higher potassium levels than harvested portions, thereby replenishing soil supplies and minimizing external inputs.^[104]

Industrial uses

Potassium compounds play a significant role in various industrial processes, particularly in manufacturing and energy sectors, where their chemical properties enable efficient material processing and performance enhancement. Potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃), for instance, serves as a key flux in the production of glass and ceramics, lowering the melting point of silica and improving the material's transparency, clarity, resistance, and refractive index.^[105] The glass industry accounts for over 50% of potassium carbonate consumption, primarily in specialty and optical glasses that contribute to higher-quality formulations compared to standard soda-lime glass.^[106]^[107] In the production of soaps and detergents, potassium hydroxide (KOH) is essential for creating soft, highly soluble potassium soaps through saponification of fats and oils, distinguishing it from sodium-based counterparts that yield harder bars.^[108] These potassium soaps are particularly valued in liquid formulations due to their greater water solubility and milder properties, maintaining relevance in modern detergent manufacturing despite historical origins.^[109] The process involves reacting KOH with triglycerides, resulting in a paste-like product that disperses easily in water for cleaning applications.^[110] Potassium chloride (KCl) is widely employed in the oil and gas industry as a shale inhibitor in water-based drilling fluids for oil wells, where it prevents clay swelling and dispersion to maintain wellbore stability.^[111] Typically added at concentrations of 5% to 10% by weight, KCl enhances the fluid's inhibitive properties without significantly altering viscosity or density, allowing for effective drilling in reactive formations.^[112] This application is critical in challenging geological environments, reducing risks of borehole collapse during extraction operations.^[113] Niche applications highlight potassium compounds' specialized roles in safety and fabrication. Potassium superoxide (KO₂) functions in chemical oxygen generators for emergency oxygen supply in submarines and aircraft, reacting with exhaled carbon dioxide and moisture to produce breathable oxygen while absorbing CO₂.^[114] Similarly, potassium silicate acts as a binder in welding electrodes, providing fluxing action that improves arc stability and weld quality, particularly for low-alloy steels.^[115] Its use in electrode coatings yields welds with higher tensile strength and is preferred for its better arc striking compared to sodium silicate alternatives.^[116] In energy and laboratory contexts, elemental potassium, often alloyed as sodium-potassium (NaK) eutectic, serves as a high-efficiency heat transfer fluid in nuclear reactors due to its excellent thermal conductivity and low melting point.^[117] This liquid metal coolant has been utilized in space nuclear systems like the U.S. SNAP-10A reactor and proposed for advanced designs, enabling compact heat exchange at elevated temperatures.^[118] Emerging advancements in the 2020s involve potassium-based superbases, such as superalkali hydroxides, in organic synthesis, where they facilitate deprotonation in challenging reactions and enable novel cross-coupling methodologies with earth-abundant reagents.^[119] These developments expand potassium's utility in catalytic processes, offering tunable basicity for efficient carbon-carbon bond formation.^[120]

Medical and nutritional uses

Potassium chloride is commonly administered in oral tablet or liquid solution form to treat hypokalemia, with typical doses ranging from 10 to 20 milliequivalents (mEq) per administration to replenish serum levels while minimizing gastrointestinal side effects.^[121] This approach allows for divided daily intake, often totaling 40 to 100 mEq, adjusted based on patient response and monitoring.^[121] Potassium citrate serves as a therapeutic agent for preventing and managing kidney stones, particularly those associated with uric acid or cystine, by alkalinizing the urine to increase its pH and reduce crystal formation.^[122] It also elevates urinary citrate levels, which binds calcium and inhibits the nucleation of calcium oxalate stones.^[122] Intravenous potassium phosphate is utilized in postoperative care to restore electrolyte balance when both potassium and phosphate deficiencies occur, commonly after major surgery due to fluid shifts and tissue repair demands.^[123] Administration requires careful monitoring of serum levels to prevent hyperkalemia, with infusion rates typically limited to avoid cardiac complications.^[124] In food processing, potassium bicarbonate (E501(ii)) and potassium carbonate (E501(i)) function as acidity regulators and raising agents, often in baked goods to control pH and promote leavening.^[125] Potassium chloride (E508) acts as a stabilizer and salt substitute in cheese production and low-sodium products, enhancing texture and flavor while providing a potassium source.^[126] Over-the-counter potassium supplements, typically in the form of chloride or gluconate salts, are available to support individuals on low-potassium diets, such as those with certain medical conditions requiring controlled intake.^[4] According to National Institutes of Health guidelines, adults should aim for a daily potassium intake of 2,600 mg for women and 3,400 mg for men to maintain overall health.^[4] Human taste buds detect potassium ions as a salty or bitter sensation primarily through transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, such as TRPM5, which contribute to the depolarization of taste cells in response to ionic stimuli.^[127]

Biological role

Biochemical functions

Potassium ions (K⁺) serve as the primary intracellular cation, maintaining a steep concentration gradient across cell membranes that is essential for numerous biochemical processes. Intracellular K⁺ concentrations are approximately 140 mM, compared to about 4 mM extracellularly, which contributes to the resting membrane potential of -70 to -90 mV in most cells.^[128]^[129] This gradient, established and sustained by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump, enables the electrogenic transport of three sodium ions (Na⁺) out of the cell and two K⁺ ions into the cell per molecule of ATP hydrolyzed, thereby supporting osmotic balance and the propagation of action potentials in nerve and muscle cells.^[130] As an enzyme cofactor, K⁺ activates key glycolytic enzymes such as pyruvate kinase and phosphofructokinase, facilitating the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate and the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate, respectively, which are critical steps in energy metabolism.^[131] Additionally, K⁺ stabilizes ribosome structure by coordinating with RNA phosphate backbones and exocyclic groups, ensuring the integrity of the ribosomal functional centers during translation.^[132] In protein synthesis, K⁺ is required for the binding of transfer RNA (tRNA) to the ribosome, promoting efficient elongation and maintaining cellular osmotic homeostasis to prevent swelling or shrinkage under varying environmental conditions.^[132] These roles underscore K⁺'s centrality in bioenergetics and macromolecular assembly. In plants, K⁺ regulates stomatal opening by modulating guard cell turgor pressure through osmotic adjustments, optimizing gas exchange and water loss.^[133] It also drives phloem loading by establishing osmotic gradients that facilitate the transport of photoassimilates from source leaves to sinks.^[134] Recent studies from 2024 highlight K⁺'s enhancement of photosynthesis efficiency, where adequate supplementation increases photosynthetic rates and yield parameters in crops like foxtail millet by improving chlorophyll content and carbon assimilation.^[135]

Homeostasis

Potassium homeostasis in the human body is maintained through a balance between intake, distribution, and excretion, with the kidneys playing the primary role in long-term regulation. Approximately 98% of total body potassium, estimated at 3,500 mmol in a 70-kg adult, is located intracellularly, while plasma concentrations are tightly controlled within the normal range of 3.5–5.0 mmol/L. This distribution ensures that only about 2% of potassium resides in the extracellular fluid, minimizing fluctuations that could disrupt cellular functions.^[136]^[137] The kidneys handle the bulk of potassium excretion to match daily intake, filtering nearly all plasma potassium at the glomerulus—about 90% of which is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule and loop of Henle via paracellular pathways. Fine-tuning occurs in the distal nephron, where aldosterone enhances potassium secretion into the urine to prevent hyperkalemia during high intake. This renal mechanism allows for adaptive excretion that aligns with dietary variations, ensuring plasma stability. Hormonally, insulin and catecholamines promote rapid potassium uptake into cells through stimulation of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump, shifting ions from plasma to intracellular compartments. Acid-base balance also influences distribution, with acidosis prompting potassium release from cells into the plasma.^[138]^[136] Gastrointestinal absorption contributes to homeostasis by efficiently incorporating dietary potassium, with about 90% absorbed primarily in the small intestine via passive diffusion. Daily potassium turnover typically ranges from 50–100 mmol, predominantly managed by renal excretion under normal conditions. Certain disruptions can alter this balance; for instance, loop and thiazide diuretics increase renal potassium loss by inhibiting reabsorption in the distal tubule. Recent research has also highlighted the gut microbiome's role in modulating potassium absorption, with probiotics potentially enhancing uptake and influencing overall homeostasis.^[4]^[139]^[140]^[141]

Nutrition

The adequate intake (AI) for potassium is established at 2,600 mg per day for adult women and 3,400 mg per day for adult men, based on median intakes in healthy populations to support overall health.^[4] These recommendations were set in 2019 by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. No tolerable upper intake level has been set, as excess potassium is primarily excreted by the kidneys in healthy individuals.^[4] Potassium is abundant in many whole foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, which serve as primary dietary sources. A medium banana provides approximately 422 mg of potassium, while a medium baked potato with skin offers about 620 mg.^[142] Meats such as chicken breast (around 359 mg per medium portion) and dairy products like yogurt also contribute significantly. In contrast, processed foods are typically low in potassium due to refining and the use of sodium-based preservatives.^[143] Risks of deficiency arise from factors such as low dietary intake, prolonged vomiting, or the use of diuretics, which increase potassium loss through urine or gastrointestinal fluids.^[144] Recent global assessments, including a 2023 systematic review, indicate that mean potassium intake is approximately 2.25 g per day worldwide, falling below the World Health Organization's recommendation of at least 3.5 g per day, with particularly low adherence in low-income regions where up to 86% of populations may not meet targets.^[145]^[146] Nutritional status is best assessed through 24-hour urinary potassium excretion rather than serum levels, with reference ranges of 25-125 mmol per day.^[147]^[148] Serum potassium concentrations, however, are a poor indicator of overall status, as they reflect only extracellular levels and remain tightly regulated even during depletion.^[149] To address suboptimal intake, potassium fortification is implemented in products like breads and salt substitutes, often replacing some sodium chloride with potassium chloride to boost consumption without altering taste significantly.^[150] Plant-based diets naturally provide high potassium levels through diverse fruits, vegetables, and legumes, supporting prevention of deficiency in vegetarian or vegan populations.^[151]

Health and safety

Precautions for handling

Elemental potassium is highly reactive with air and moisture, necessitating storage under mineral oil, kerosene, or in an inert atmosphere such as nitrogen or argon to prevent spontaneous ignition or formation of explosive peroxides.^[5] In laboratory and industrial settings, handling should occur in a glovebox or fume hood under inert gas to minimize exposure risks.^[152] Fires involving elemental potassium burn with a characteristic lilac or purple flame and can ignite spontaneously upon exposure to air.^[153] Water must never be used for extinguishing, as it reacts violently to produce flammable hydrogen gas; instead, employ Class D dry chemical extinguishers (such as Met-L-X), soda ash, dry sand, or graphite to smother the fire.^[152]^[5] Among reactive potassium compounds, potassium hydroxide (KOH) is strongly corrosive, with aqueous solutions exhibiting a pH of approximately 14 and capable of causing severe skin and eye burns upon contact.^[154] Potassium cyanide (KCN) is extremely toxic, with an oral LD50 of about 5 mg/kg in rabbits and inhibiting cellular respiration by binding to cytochrome c oxidase.^[155] Personal protective equipment for handling elemental potassium and its compounds includes chemical-resistant gloves (e.g., nitrile), safety goggles or face shields, and fire-retardant laboratory coats to prevent skin contact and ignition sources.^[152] In case of spills, evacuate the area, control ignition sources, and cover elemental potassium with dry sand using non-sparking tools before disposal; for KOH spills, neutralize with a dilute acid (e.g., acetic acid) under adequate ventilation, while KCN spills require specialized hazardous waste handling.^[5] Regulatory guidelines include OSHA's permissible exposure limit for potassium hydroxide mist at a ceiling of 2 mg/m³, and elemental potassium metal is classified for transport as UN2257 under hazardous materials regulations due to its pyrophoric nature.^[156]^[157]

Health effects

Hypokalemia, defined as a serum potassium concentration below 3.5 mmol/L, manifests with symptoms including muscle weakness, fatigue, cramps, and palpitations, progressing in severe cases to arrhythmias, paralysis, or respiratory failure.^[158] Common causes include diuretic use, gastrointestinal losses such as diarrhea or vomiting, and inadequate dietary intake.^[158] Electrocardiographic changes associated with hypokalemia feature prominent U waves, flattened or inverted T waves, ST-segment depression, and prolonged QT interval, which can predispose to ventricular arrhythmias.^[158] Hyperkalemia, characterized by serum potassium levels exceeding 5.5 mmol/L, poses risks of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias, including ventricular fibrillation and cardiac arrest, along with muscle weakness or paralysis.^[159] Primary causes encompass renal failure, both acute and chronic, and medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, particularly in patients with comorbidities like diabetes or heart failure.^[159] ECG alterations include peaked T waves at levels of 5.5–6.5 mmol/L, loss of P waves and widened QRS complexes at higher concentrations (6.5–8.0 mmol/L), potentially evolving into a sine-wave pattern indicative of severe toxicity.^[159] Chronic high potassium intake demonstrates protective effects against hypertension, as evidenced by the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet trials, which showed significant blood pressure reductions, particularly in sodium-sensitive individuals.^[160] A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials confirmed that potassium supplementation lowers systolic blood pressure, with benefits observed at intakes around 90–100 mmol/day, especially when paired with reduced sodium intake.^[161] Conversely, low potassium intake is linked to increased stroke risk, with meta-analyses reporting a relative risk of approximately 1.15 (inverse of 0.87 for highest versus lowest intake categories) for stroke events, particularly ischemic subtypes.^[162] Potassium toxicity primarily arises from acute imbalances rather than dietary sources, though elemental potassium ingestion is fatal due to its violent reaction with water in the gastrointestinal tract, generating heat and hydrogen gas that cause severe burns and tissue damage.^[163] Potassium compounds like potassium chloride (KCl) are generally safe orally but can induce rapid hyperkalemia if administered intravenously in error, such as through undiluted boluses or excessive rates exceeding 20 mEq/hour, leading to cardiac arrest without prompt intervention.^[124] Elderly individuals and those with chronic kidney disease (CKD), especially stages 4–5, represent vulnerable groups for potassium imbalances, exhibiting heightened risks of mortality and kidney replacement therapy due to impaired excretion.^[164] Monitoring typically involves serial serum potassium measurements every 3–6 months in stable CKD patients, with arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis preferred in acute settings for rapid assessment alongside pH and other electrolytes.^[164]^[165]

Environmental impacts

Potash mining operations can lead to significant environmental disturbances, including land subsidence and water contamination. In Saskatchewan, Canada, a major potash-producing region, underground mining has been associated with subsidence rates of up to 5 cm per year in affected areas, potentially damaging surface infrastructure and ecosystems. Brine disposal from mining processes contributes to groundwater salinization, rendering aquifers unusable and disrupting biogeochemical cycles in surrounding soils. Tailings from potash extraction release salt leachates that elevate water conductivity to levels nearly three times that of seawater, exacerbating salinization in nearby rivers and wetlands. These impacts are particularly pronounced in regions like the Verkhnekamskoe deposit, where mining has altered surface water quality and vegetation cover. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates potash mining wastewater under the Clean Water Act, setting limits on total dissolved solids and salinity to protect aquatic life.^[166] The use of potassium fertilizers in agriculture contributes to environmental degradation through runoff into waterways, increasing salinity and potentially promoting secondary effects in nutrient-rich conditions alongside nitrogen and phosphorus, which are the primary drivers of eutrophication. Over-application of potassium fertilizers in arid and semi-arid regions accelerates soil salinization, where high evaporation concentrates salts, reducing soil fertility and causing yield losses of 20-50% in sensitive crops. Globally, approximately 20% of irrigated lands suffer from salinity issues, partly due to improper fertilizer management, affecting ecosystem productivity. The EPA provides guidelines for nutrient management plans to minimize runoff from fertilizers.^[167] Mitigation strategies for these impacts include precision agriculture techniques, which optimize potassium application and reduce overall fertilizer use by 15-30% through variable-rate technology and soil monitoring. Recycling potassium from biomass ash, such as from agricultural residues or wood combustion, offers a sustainable alternative to mining, with recovery rates exceeding 90% via water leaching in some processes. Atmospheric emissions from potash mining are relatively minor, primarily consisting of dust particles that can affect local air quality but have limited global impact.

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An Electrolysis-Distillation Approach for Producing Potassium Metal
Aug 6, 2025 · The so-called electrolysis-distillation (ED) approach was conducted in molten K2CO3-KCl along with a nickel (Ni)-based inert oxygen-evolution ...
[70]
Potassium Metal Market Research Report 2033
As per our latest market intelligence, the Global Potassium Metal market size was valued at $465 million in 2024, and is forecasted to hit $762 million by 2033, ...
[71]
[PDF] Recommended Best Practice for the Analysis of Potassium Content ...
By definition, the matrix for fertilizer-grade potassium chloride is limited to 99% soluble chlorides and 0-1% water-insoluble compounds such as anhydrite, ...
[72]
Flame colours: a demonstration | Class experiment - RSC Education
Potassium compounds result in a lilac flame. Calcium compounds result in an orange-red flame. Copper compounds result in a green flame. If a sample containing ...
[73]
Strong Lines of Potassium ( K ) - Physical Measurement Laboratory
Strong Lines of Potassium ( K ) ; 200, 10482.15, K I ; 300, 10487.11, K I ; 700, 11019.87, K I ; 600, 11022.67, K I ...
[74]
None
Summary of each segment:
[75]
The direct and accurate determination of major elements Ca, K, Mg ...
Dec 10, 2018 · A direct, accurate and precise method is reported for major elements Ca, K, Mg and Na measurements in river and drinking water using a high resolution ICP-MS.
[76]
ISO 5318:1983 - Fertilizers — Determination of potassium content
The method consists in preparing of a test solution as specified in ISO 5317, precipitating of potassium ions by sodium tetraphenylborate in a weakly alkaline ...Missing: analysis | Show results with:analysis
[77]
Portable Mining & Exploration Solutions - Thermo Fisher Scientific
Niton handheld XRF analyzers are a reliable method to analyze ore samples in open pits and underground mines – achieving the accuracy required to provide ...
[78]
Chemical and ionization interferences in the atomic absorption ...
Phosphate affects the cations in the order Na < K < Rb < Cs, with 20 mM phosphate depressing cesium absorbance approximately 40%. Conversely, ionization ...Missing: detection | Show results with:detection
[79]
A Study of the Hydration of the Alkali Metal Ions in Aqueous Solution
Dec 14, 2011 · The same methodology for the potassium ion indicates a coordination number of 7.1 from comparing trends of heats of hydration, Figure 13, while ...
[80]
Solubility Table of Inorganic Compounds in Water - Alfa Chemistry
Highly soluble ionic compounds include sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium nitrate (KNO3), and calcium chloride (CaCl2). Covalent compounds. Covalent inorganic ...
[81]
Potassium Chloride | KCl | CID 4873 - PubChem - NIH
Potassium chloride is a metal chloride salt with a K(+) counterion. It has a role as a fertilizer and a NMR chemical shift reference compound. It is a potassium ...
[82]
Potassium Hydroxide | KOH | CID 14797 - PubChem - NIH
Potassium hydroxide, solution appears as an clear aqueous solution. Corrosive to metals and tissue. Noncombustible. Used in chemical manufacturing, petroleum ...
[83]
Potassium Carbonate | K2CO3 | CID 11430 - PubChem
Potassium carbonate is a potassium salt that is the dipotassium salt of carbonic acid. It has a role as a catalyst, a fertilizer and a flame retardant.
[84]
Sustainable Process for the Extraction of Potassium from Feldspar ...
Jun 16, 2020 · The conventional process for CaCl2 production, i.e., the Solvay process, produces Na2CO3 along with CaCl2.
[85]
Potassium Nitrate | KNO3 | CID 24434 - PubChem - NIH
Potassium nitrate appears as a white to dirty gray crystalline solid. Water soluble. Noncombustible, but accelerates the burning of combustible materials.
[86]
Potassium Permanganate | KMnO4 | CID 516875 - PubChem
Potassium permanganate is a chemical compound of manganese prepared from manganese dioxide. It is a powerful oxidizing agent and used a fixative, disinfectant,
[87]
Potassium Cyanide | KCN | CID 9032 - PubChem - NIH
Potassium Cyanide | KCN ... properties, classification, patents, literature, biological activities, safety/hazards/toxicity information, supplier lists, and more.Missing: toxicity | Show results with:toxicity
[88]
Potassium Acetate | C2H3O2K | CID 517044 - PubChem
Potassium acetate is a potassium salt comprising equal numbers of potassium and acetate ions It has a role as a food acidity regulator. It contains an acetate.
[89]
[PDF] K-TAB® (potassium chloride extended-release tablets, USP)
It is freely soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. Inactive ... The use of potassium salts in patients receiving diuretics for uncomplicated essential.
[90]
t BuOK-triggered bond formation reactions - RSC Advances (RSC ...
Aug 2, 2019 · Introduction. Potassium tert-butoxide (tBuOK) is traditionally used as a strong and non-nucleophilic base in organic synthesis.
[91]
Cryptand 2.2.2 - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cryptand 2.2.2 is defined as a ligand that selectively complexates alkali metal ions, particularly the potassium ion (K+), in a methanol/water solution, due to ...<|separator|>
[92]
Preparation of potassium ionic sieve membrane and its application ...
A potassium ionic sieve membrane was synthesized on α-Al 2 O 3 ceramic tube by the hydrothermal synthesis method. Then it was characterized by SEM photos.
[93]
Cation-Exchange Properties of Natural Zeolites - GeoScienceWorld
Mar 9, 2017 · Zeolite minerals are crystalline, hydrated aluminosilicates of alkali and alkaline earth cations characterized by an ability to hydrate/dehydrate reversibly.
[94]
[PDF] Risk Reduction of Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV ...
Apr 1, 2021 · While trying to operate the potassium superoxide (KO2) rebreather units, smoke quickly filled the cabin. Linenger reports, “I did not inhale ...
[95]
[PDF] Carboxylic Acid Structure and Chemistry: Part 2
Carboxylic acids can undergo ionization, salt formation, nucleophilic attack at the carbonyl or adjacent carbon, and decarboxylation. They ionize in basic ...
[96]
[PDF] 2.2.2-Cryptand as a Bidentate Ligand in Rare-Earth Metal Chemistry
Aug 21, 2020 · The 2.2. 2-cryptand ligand (crypt) that is heavily used in reductions of rare-earth metal complexes to encapsulate alkali metals has been found ...
[97]
Potash Fertilizers Market Size to Attain USD 32.42 Bn by 2034
Over 90% of potash produced globally is used as a fertilizer for food crops. In 2022, approximately 64.6 million tons of potash was produced globally.
[98]
Potassium's Role - Growth & Development - OMEX Canada
Oct 25, 2023 · Potassium helps regulate water uptake and maintain osmotic balance within plant cells. ... Potassium improves a plant's resistance to diseases ...<|separator|>
[99]
[PDF] Potassium and Nitrogen Use Efficiency - International Potash Institute
Many trials conducted by IPI demonstrate the role and scale effect of K on NUE. In these experiments, a typical K application of 30-150 kg K2O/ha increases NUE ...
[100]
Potassium | Nutrient Management - Mosaic Crop Nutrition
One of the most common signs of potassium deficiency is the yellow scorching, or firing (chlorosis), along the leaf margin. In severe cases, the fired margin ...
[101]
Potassium Deficiency — Research - Department of Plant Science
Potassium deficiency causes wilting, stocky appearance, small leaves, dark/bluish-green leaves, and blotchy chlorosis on older leaves. Lack of turgor may cause ...
[102]
[PDF] POTASH - USGS.gov
World potash production was estimated to have increased in 2024, with Belarus and Canada having the largest increases in production from that in 2023. Canada ...
[103]
https://icl-growingsolutions.com/en-ca/agriculture/knowledge-hub/improving-the-nutritional-quality-of-crops-with-potassium/
[104]
Potassium in Potatoes: Vital to all Growth Stages. | Protassium+®
Potassium is important for dry matter growth and the conversion of free sugars into potato starch5. Potassium plays a vital role throughout all of the potato ...
[105]
How Potassium Improves the Nutritional Quality of Crops | ICL CA
Jun 4, 2024 · In tubers, potassium increases starch content and tuber size. ... Crops that benefit from potassium. Potato. Tomato. Soybean. Corn. Do you ...
[106]
Potassium release during decomposition of crop residues under ...
Recycling of K is particularly important because crop residues usually contain more K than the harvested seed (Lupwayi et al. 1999;. Whitbread et al. 2000) ...
[107]
Crystal clear: the role of potassium carbonate in glass manufacturing
Mar 25, 2021 · Potassium carbonate is primarily used as a flux in glass production. It increases the resistance, transparency, and refractive coefficient of glass to give it ...
[108]
Why Potassium Carbonate is So Important for Modern Glass ...
Jan 22, 2022 · Potassium carbonate is a common flux as it not only helps control the process, but also aids the transparency, clarity, resistance, and refractive coefficient ...
[109]
Use of Potassium carbonate - ChemicalBook
Nov 12, 2021 · Video glass accounts for 44% of potassium carbonate usage, while specialty glass and ceramics use 10%. The main reason that relatively ...<|separator|>
[110]
Chemicals Used to Make Soap and Detergent
Dec 22, 2021 · Sodium hydroxide (lye) is used to create bar soaps, while potassium hydroxide (potash), a more water-soluble metal hydroxide, is used to create ...
[111]
Uses for KOH in Soap, Energy & Batteries, Manufacturing, and More
Dec 8, 2021 · Although sodium hydroxide is more commonly used for soap production, potassium hydroxide creates a softer soap. KOH is also more soluble than ...
[112]
Sodium Hydroxide and Potassium Hydroxide Used in Soapmaking
Dec 8, 2019 · A soap made with potassium hydroxide does not crystallize in the same fashion, so it does not become solid or opaque.
[113]
[PDF] POTASSIUM CHLORIDE - AMC Drilling Optimisation
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCl) can be added directly to a drilling fluid system to enhance its inhibitive quality, which helps to stabilise water sensitive clay and ...
[114]
The Evolving Role of Potassium Chloride in the Oil & Gas Industry
Sep 2, 2024 · Its primary function is as a shale stabilizer in drilling fluids, preventing the swelling and dispersion of clays, which can lead to wellbore ...
[115]
KCl - Potassium Chloride - Best Drilling Chemicals
KCl 96% is a natural Potassium Chloride used for the preparation of water-based drilling and stimulation fluids in which it acts as a shale inhibitor.
[116]
How Do Submarines Get Oxygen? - Marine Insight
Oct 6, 2021 · Other self-contained units like Oxygen Breathing Apparatus (OBA) using potassium superoxide (KO2), which produces breathable oxygen and removes ...
[117]
Zacsil Potassium Silicate Products - Zaclon LLC
There are a multitude of uses of Zacsil Potassium Silicate including welding rods, detergents and cleaners, sulfuric acid catalyst binders, coatings for masonry ...
[118]
Welding Consumables - Part 1 - TWI Global
The potassium silicate binder electrodes generally have better arc striking and stability characteristics than the sodium silicate binder types and a more ...
[119]
Nuclear Power Reactors
Oct 1, 2025 · If a reactor needs to be shut down frequently, NaK eutectic which is liquid at room temperature (about 13°C) may be used as coolant, but the ...Advanced reactors · Small Nuclear Power Reactors
[120]
[PDF] Investigation of Liquid Metal Heat Exchanger Designs for Fission ...
Previous Soviet RORSAT radar satellites were powered by NaK-cooled reactors. Sodium potassium (NaK) was also used in the U.S. SNAP-10A fission reactor. Figure 2 ...
[121]
Novel and Polynuclear K- and Na-Based Superalkali Hydroxides as ...
Nov 11, 2021 · Hydroxides of superalkalis (particularly, K- and Na-related species) are shown for the first time to function as superbases.
[122]
Harnessing Organopotassium Reagents for Cross-Coupling ... - NIH
With advances in the applications of earth-abundant organopotassium reagents in C–C bond forming processes, this study pioneers Pd-catalyzed cross coupling ...
[123]
Potassium Chloride Dosage Guide + Max Dose, Adjustments
Jun 2, 2025 · Usual Adult Dose for Hypokalemia. Oral: 40 to 100 mEq per day, orally, in 2 to 5 divided doses. Maximum single dose: 20 mEq per dose
[124]
Potassium citrate: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action - DrugBank
Potassium citrate induces changes in the urine which renders urine less susceptible to the formation of crystals and stones from salts e.g. calcium oxalate, ...
[125]
Changes in Electrolytes After Surgery - UW Health
You need electrolytes to maintain your body's balance. The most common electrolytes replaced after surgery are magnesium, potassium, phosphate, and sodium.
[126]
Potassium - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Oct 5, 2024 · Severe hypokalemia (<3 mEq/L): Initiate at 40 mEq 3 to 4 times daily or 20 mEq every 2 to 3 hours. The dose should be adjusted based on serum ...
[127]
Food Additives and E Numbers - DermNet
- As well as food additive, also used in some potassium supplements. E341 ... E501, Potassium carbonate, - Acidity regulator, stabiliser, raising agent ...
[128]
https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/potassium
[129]
Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) Channels and Taste Sensation
Many TRP channels play important roles in signal transduction in various sensory systems, including vision, smell, pheromone, hearing, touch, osmolarity, ...
[130]
Potassium | Linus Pauling Institute | Oregon State University
Potassium (K+) is the principal positively charged ion (cation) in the fluid inside of cells, while sodium (Na+) is the principal cation in the extracellular ...
[131]
Physiology, Resting Potential - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Moreover, K+ is a positively charged ion that has an intracellular concentration of 120 mM, an extracellular concentration of 4 mM, and an equilibrium ...Introduction · Cellular Level · Mechanism
[132]
Physiology, Sodium Potassium Pump - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Mar 13, 2023 · The Na+K+ pump is an electrogenic ATPase that pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in, maintaining osmotic equilibrium and membrane potential.Introduction · Cellular Level · Function
[133]
Multilevel Analysis of Primary Metabolism Provides New Insights ...
We propose that the primary cause of metabolic disorders in low-K plants resides in the direct inhibition of pyruvate kinase activity by low cytoplasmic K in ...
[134]
Importance of potassium ions for ribosome structure and function ...
Jun 7, 2019 · K+ ions are also found to stabilize the structure of tRNAs bound to the ribosome (Supplementary Fig. 3a). The A-site tRNA, for instance ...
[135]
Decoding Plant Metabolomic Response to Potassium and Nutrient ...
Sep 24, 2025 · The principal role of K in stomatal control is to sustain a delicate equilibrium between CO2 intake and water vapor release from intercellular ...
[136]
Potassium stimulates fruit sugar accumulation by increasing carbon ...
Potassium stimulates fruit sugar accumulation by increasing carbon flow from leaves to fruit, enhancing symplastic loading, and improving fruit quality.
[137]
Potassium humate supplementation improves photosynthesis and ...
Apr 25, 2024 · Overall, KH enhances photosynthetic rate and yield of foxtail millet, therefore it may be conducive to stable millet production.
[138]
Potassium: From Physiology to Clinical Implications - PMC - NIH
Potassium (K+) is the major intracellular cation, with 98% in cells. It's crucial for life, and its plasma levels are maintained by internal and external ...Potassium Homeostasis · Renal Homeostasis Of K · Hypokalemia: Lessons From...
[139]
Serum Potassium and Mortality Risk in Hemodialysis Patients - NIH
In the general population, serum potassium levels between 3.5 and 5.0 mmol/L are considered to be within the normal range. In patients with chronic kidney ...
[140]
Regulation of Potassium Homeostasis - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Long-term maintenance of potassium homeostasis is achieved by alterations in renal excretion of potassium in response to variations in intake.
[141]
Potassium and Its Discontents: New Insight, New Treatments - PMC
Individuals consuming a Western diet typically ingest approximately 50–100 mEq (2–4 g) potassium daily. Approximately 10% is excreted in the stool, and ...
[142]
Diuretic‐Induced Potassium Depletion and Glucose Intolerance Are ...
Thiazide diuretics lead to potassium depletion through the activation of the renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone system (RAAS) in response to reductions in ...
[143]
Exploring the intricacies of mineral absorption in the human body - NIH
Dec 13, 2023 · The aim of the present review is to investigate the intricate connection between probiotics and the absorption of key minerals such as calcium, selenium, zinc, ...
[144]
USDA FoodData Central
USDA FoodData Central produces thorough resources for navigating and understanding nutritional info to support dietary choices and nutritional analysis.Inventory and Update Log · Food Search · Fndds download databases · Iodine
[145]
Food Sources of Potassium - Dietary Guidelines for Americans
Food Sources of Potassium ; Potato, baked, with skin, 1 medium, 161 ; Yam, cooked, 1 cup, 158 ; Acorn squash, cooked, 1 cup, 115 ; Amaranth leaves, cooked, 1 cup ...
[146]
Low potassium (hypokalemia) Causes - Mayo Clinic
Alcohol use · Chronic kidney disease · Diabetic ketoacidosis (in which the body has high levels of blood acids called ketones) · Diarrhea · Diuretics (water ...Low potassium (hypokalemia) · Print · When to see a doctor · Alcohol use
[147]
Global mean potassium intake: a systematic review and Bayesian ...
Mar 8, 2023 · Current guidelines recommend a potassium intake of more than 3.5 g/day [5], which is based on clinical trials of blood pressure (BP) lowering, ...Global Potassium Intake · Table 1 · Regional Potassium Intake<|separator|>
[148]
Increasing potassium intake to reduce blood pressure and risk of ...
Aug 9, 2023 · WHO suggests a potassium intake of at least 90 mmol/day (3510 mg/day) for adults. Guidelines and guidance documents Learn More Alternate Text ...
[149]
Human biomarkers for measuring potassium intake and status
The gold standard for population potassium intake assessment is the measurement of sodium excreted in a 24 h urine sample.
[150]
Association of serum potassium level with dietary potassium intake ...
Nov 24, 2023 · Serum potassium was weakly associated with 24-hour urinary potassium among individuals with moderate (adjusted β=0.0040/L; p=0.017) and high ( ...
[151]
Potassium-Enriched Salt Substitutes as a Means to Lower Blood ...
Dec 16, 2019 · Use of salt substitutes containing potassium chloride is a potential strategy to reduce sodium intake, increase potassium intake, and thereby lower blood ...
[152]
Potassium and Plant-Based Diets for People with Kidney Disease
Sep 20, 2022 · Varied, well-balanced plant-based diets may prevent and slow the progression of chronic kidney disease, Type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease.
[153]
Potassium | Office of Environmental Health and Safety - Princeton EHS
Elemental potassium is an odorless silver metal solid that reacts violently with water, acids and oxygenated compounds.
[154]
Flame Test Colors: Photo Gallery - ThoughtCo
Sep 24, 2024 · Potassium salts produce a characteristic purple or violet color in a flame. Assuming your burner flame is blue, it may be difficult to see a ...
[155]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK600901/
[156]
HEALTH EFFECTS - Toxicological Profile for Cyanide - NCBI - NIH
Transocular LD50 values were 1.0 mg CN−/kg as hydrogen cyanide, 2.68 mg CN−/kg as sodium cyanide, and 3.2 mg CN−/kg as potassium cyanide. The deaths ...
[157]
1988 OSHA PEL Project - Potassium Hydroxide | NIOSH - CDC
OSHA had no former limit for potassium hydroxide. A ceiling limit of 2 mg/m3 was proposed by the Agency based on the ACGIH recommendation, and NIOSH (Ex. 8-47 ...Missing: m3 | Show results with:m3
[158]
UN/NA 2257 - CAMEO Chemicals - NOAA
UN/NA 2257. 4.3 - Dangerous when wet. CAMEO Chemicals has 1 chemical datasheet with response recommendations for this UN/NA number.
[159]
Hypokalemia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jan 19, 2025 · [17] The most common ECG abnormalities associated with potassium deficiency include decreased T wave amplitude, depressed ST segment, appearance ...
[160]
Hyperkalemia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Hyperkalemia is defined as a serum or plasma potassium level above the upper limits of normal, usually greater than 5.0 mEq/L to 5.5 mEq/L.Missing: 3.5-5.0 | Show results with:3.5-5.0
[161]
Effects on Blood Pressure of Reduced Dietary Sodium and the ...
Jan 4, 2001 · The DASH diet was associated with a significantly lower systolic blood pressure at each sodium level; and the difference was greater with high sodium levels ...Missing: protection | Show results with:protection
[162]
Modifying Dietary Sodium and Potassium Intake: An End to the 'Salt ...
Oct 12, 2023 · Excessive salt intake raises blood pressure, but the implications of this observation for human health have remained contentious.Salt Consumption · Dietary Salt And Bp · Dietary Potassium And Bp<|separator|>
[163]
Meta‐Analysis of Potassium Intake and the Risk of Stroke - PMC - NIH
Oct 6, 2016 · This dose–response meta‐analysis confirms the inverse association between potassium intake and stroke risk, with potassium intake of 90 mmol (≈3500 mg)/day ...
[164]
Detection of Fatal Potassium Overdose: A Case Report and Review ...
Apr 4, 2023 · Potassium overdose usually occurs accidentally, but potassium is also used for judicial executions, assisted death, and, rarely, suicides.
[165]
Serum Potassium and Risk of Death or Kidney Replacement ...
May 12, 2023 · Abnormal potassium blood levels may increase the risk of death or kidney function decline, especially in older people with chronic kidney ...
[166]
Accuracy of Potassium Measurement Using Blood Gas Analyzer
Mar 30, 2022 · This study indicates that the gas analyzers may be reliable when potassium level is needed urgently. They produce results in five minutes or so.