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Sabine's gull

Sabine's gull (Xema sabini) is a small, tern-like seabird in the gull family Laridae, measuring 27–33 cm in length with a wingspan of approximately 80 cm, distinguished by its dark gray hood in breeding plumage, black bill tipped in yellow, red eyering, and striking tricolored upperwing pattern featuring black outer primaries, white secondaries, and gray inner coverts.^[1]^[2]^[3] This species exhibits a notched tail and pointed wings adapted for agile flight, often foraging by dipping or pattering at the water's surface to capture prey.^[2]^[3] Breeding exclusively in the high Arctic tundra across Holarctic regions from Alaska and northern Canada to Greenland and Siberia, with a small population in Svalbard (Norway), Sabine's gull nests in small colonies on moist, marshy ground near ponds or coastal areas, where it constructs rudimentary scrapes lined with moss, grass, or seaweed and lays 2–3 olive-brown spotted eggs incubated for 23–25 days by both parents.^[1]^[2]^[3] Its diet primarily consists of aquatic insects, crustaceans, and small fish during the breeding season, shifting to marine plankton and fish in winter.^[1]^[2] Notable for its transoceanic migration, the species travels southward along the Pacific or Atlantic coasts, wintering in nutrient-rich upwelling zones off western South America and southern Africa, often following whales or seals to exploit disturbed prey.^[1]^[2]^[3] As the sole member of its genus, Sabine's gull displays unique behaviors such as distraction displays to deter predators from nests and a distinctive molt schedule where adults complete their pre-breeding molt in the Southern Hemisphere.^[1]^[3] It is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, with a global population estimated at 340,000 mature individuals (2015) and stable trends, though potential threats include marine pollution and climate change impacts on Arctic breeding habitats.^[4]^[5]

Taxonomy and etymology

Scientific classification

Sabine's gull (Xema sabini) is classified in the monotypic genus Xema within the family Laridae and the order Charadriiformes.^[6]^[7] The genus Xema contains only this species, distinguishing it from other gulls in the family, which are primarily placed in the larger genus Larus.^[8] The species was formally described in 1819 by naturalist Joseph Sabine, based on a specimen collected from Melville Bay in Greenland during an Arctic expedition led by his brother, Edward Sabine.^[3] Originally named Larus sabini, it was later moved to its own genus due to morphological and genetic distinctions from typical Larus gulls.^[9] Phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial DNA have identified the ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea) as its closest living relative, with the two species diverging approximately 2 million years ago during the early Pleistocene.^[9] This relationship is supported by shared genetic markers despite differences in plumage and habitat preferences. Some taxonomic authorities recognize four subspecies of Sabine's gull, differentiated primarily by subtle variations in size, bill proportions, and dorsal coloration, though these differences are minor and clinal.^[10] The nominate subspecies, X. s. sabini, occurs in the Nearctic, breeding from the Canadian High Arctic eastward to Greenland.^[10] X. s. palaearctica is found in the western Palearctic, breeding across northern Eurasian tundra from Svalbard to the Taimyr Peninsula.^[10] X. s. tschuktschorum, described by Portenko in 1939, breeds on the Chukchi Peninsula in far northeastern Siberia.^[11] X. s. woznesenskii, also described by Portenko in 1939, inhabits islands in the Bering Sea from the Gulf of Anadyr to western Alaska, showing slightly larger size and darker mantle tones compared to the nominate form.^[11]^[10] Other sources treat the species as monotypic due to limited genetic differentiation across its range.^[12]

Naming and history

The common name "Sabine's gull" commemorates Sir Edward Sabine, an Irish astronomer and naturalist who collected the first known specimen in 1818 while serving as the scientific officer on John Ross's expedition to explore Baffin Bay in search of a Northwest Passage.^[3]^[13] His brother, Joseph Sabine, then secretary of the Linnean Society of London, formally described the species the following year in the society's Transactions, naming it Larus sabini in Edward's honor based on that Greenland specimen. This description marked the species' entry into scientific literature, highlighting its distinctive forked tail and tern-like appearance, which distinguished it from other gulls. An alternative vernacular name, "xeme," originates from the Shetland dialect term for a young gull or fork-tailed bird, and it appeared in early 19th-century ornithological accounts, including references in John Ross's voyage narrative.^[14] The genus name Xema was independently proposed by zoologist William Elford Leach in 1819 within the appendix to Ross's expedition report, derived from this Shetland word or possibly as a neologism evoking ancient Greek terms for seabirds, though its precise origin remains debated among etymologists.^[14] Early observations were sparse due to the bird's remote Arctic habitat, but the first confirmed breeding records emerged from Edward Sabine's subsequent role on William Edward Parry's 1819–1820 Northwest Passage expedition aboard HMS Hecla, where nests and eggs were documented on Arctic islands; these findings were detailed in Parry's 1821 journal publication.^[15]^[16] Further insights into Arctic populations came from later 19th-century expeditions, including additional Parry voyages and explorations by figures like Adolphus Greely, which expanded knowledge of the gull's breeding distribution across high-latitude coasts.^[15] Sabine's gull remains the sole species in the monotypic genus Xema.^[3]

Physical description

Morphology and measurements

Sabine's gull (Xema sabini) is a small species with a total body length of 27–33 cm and a mass ranging from 155 to 213 g.^[17]^[18] The wingspan measures 81–87 cm, contributing to its graceful, tern-like flight adapted for pelagic environments.^[17] The bird possesses a small head and a slender, straight bill, typically around 2.5 cm in length, which is black with a yellow tip in adults.^[17] Its wings are long and pointed, while the tail is slightly forked or notched.^[18]^[2] Sexual dimorphism is minimal, with no pronounced differences in structure or plumage; however, males average slightly larger than females in overall size.^[17] Compared to the black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus), Sabine's gull is smaller in body length (27–33 cm versus 35–39 cm) and has proportionally longer wings relative to its size, suited for extended ocean flights.^[17]^[19]

Plumage variations

The adult breeding plumage of Sabine's gull features a distinctive charcoal gray hood bordered in black, accented by a vivid red eye-ring, with pale gray upperparts and white underparts. The wings exhibit a striking tricolored pattern, including a black trailing edge on the outer primaries, a white leading edge on the inner primaries and secondaries that forms an "M"-shaped mark across the upperwing, and overall gray coverts and back; the tail is forked and white. The bill is black with a yellow tip, and the legs are dark.^[18]^[20] In non-breeding plumage, adults lose the full hood, which reduces to dark ear spots or a partial hood concentrated on the nape and collar, while retaining the white underparts, forked tail, and tricolored wing pattern; the eye-ring becomes dusky, and the legs may appear pinkish. This seasonal shift occurs via a complete post-breeding moult on the wintering grounds in the Southern Hemisphere. Adults also undergo a complete pre-breeding moult prior to returning north, restoring the bold hood and red eye-ring.^[18]^[20]^[1] Juveniles display mottled brown upperparts with pale fringes creating a scaled appearance on the back and wings, contrasting with the gray of adults; the underparts are white, the bill is entirely black, and the tail has a broad black subterminal band. Unlike most gulls, fledged juveniles retain this juvenal plumage throughout their first migration and autumn, delaying the prebasic moult until arriving on or near the wintering grounds in the Southern Hemisphere, where they gradually acquire first-winter plumage with fading brown tones on the upperparts. Full adult plumage is not attained until the second year.^[18]^[20]^[1]^[21] The diagnostic tricolored wing pattern is particularly visible in flight and serves as a key identifier, distinguishing Sabine's gull from similar species such as the little gull, which lacks the forked tail, yellow-tipped bill, and bold "M" marking, instead showing a different black-and-white wing contrast on a smaller frame.^[18]^[20]

Range and migration

Breeding range

Sabine's gull (Xema sabini) is a high Arctic breeder with a nearly circumpolar distribution confined to northernmost latitudes. In North America, its breeding range spans coastal tundra from western and northern Alaska—including the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska Peninsula, and north to the Arctic Coastal Plain—eastward across arctic Canada to Ellesmere Island, Banks Island, and Victoria Island.^[22]^[23] In Eurasia, breeding occurs in subarctic and high Arctic regions of Russia, including Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, northern Siberia, and Chukotka, as well as Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands.^[24]^[4] The species forms colonies on coastal tundra, small islands, and wetland edges, typically near ponds, lakes, or shallow brackish pools that support high insect abundance for foraging.^[25]^[22] It selects low-lying wet tundra with moss and sedge vegetation but avoids denser shrubby areas, favoring open, marshy sites where insects are plentiful during the short breeding season.^[4]^[24] The global population is estimated at 330,000–700,000 mature individuals (as of 2015), with over 25,000 breeding pairs in Alaska alone based on surveys of key areas like the Arctic Coastal Plain and Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta.^[4]^[22]^[26] Recent monitoring shows stable to increasing trends overall, with notable population growth in Alaska from 1992–2014 and in European breeding areas, though the core high Arctic range remains unchanged; these increases may relate to warming climates enhancing suitable wetland habitats.^[4]^[22]

Migration patterns

Sabine's gull is a long-distance migrant, undertaking round-trip journeys of up to 39,000 km annually, one of the longest migrations among gulls.^[27] Post-breeding departure from Arctic breeding grounds occurs primarily in late July to August for adults, with individuals arriving back at breeding sites in April to early May.^[27]^[28] Juveniles typically depart slightly later and migrate independently of adults.^[1] Migration routes are trans-Arctic and predominantly oceanic, with birds from western Arctic populations (Alaska and Siberia) traveling south along the Pacific via the Bering Sea and Alaska coast, while those from eastern populations (Canadian High Arctic and Greenland) head to the Atlantic via routes passing near Europe, the Azores, and central North Atlantic waters.^[29]^[27] These paths largely avoid major landmasses, following ocean currents and productive upwelling zones to facilitate efficient travel.^[29] Key staging areas include the Bay of Biscay in the Atlantic, where birds may remain for up to 45 days in autumn, as well as coastal waters off the U.S. West Coast and tropical Pacific regions during transit.^[27]^[1] Vagrant records occur regularly in interior North America, particularly on lakes and rivers following storms or cold fronts, and sporadically in southern oceans beyond typical routes.^[1] A notable adaptation is the gull's pelagic foraging strategy during migration, where it swoops over open ocean waters to capture crustaceans, small fish, and plankton, sustaining energy needs without relying on land-based stops.^[29]^[1] Spring migrations are often faster, aided by tailwinds, averaging speeds of around 800 km per day in some tracked individuals.^[27]

Wintering areas

Sabine's gulls primarily winter in the productive upwelling zones of the southeast Pacific Ocean, particularly along the Humboldt Current off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador, extending southward to central Chile.^[4]^[20] A smaller proportion winters in the Atlantic Ocean, concentrated in the Benguela Current off southwestern Africa from Namibia to South Africa.^[30]^[31] The global wintering population is estimated at 330,000–700,000 individuals, with the Atlantic contingent comprising only about 2% (approximately 10,000 birds), indicating that the vast majority utilize Pacific waters.^[20] During the non-breeding season, Sabine's gulls adopt a highly pelagic lifestyle, inhabiting offshore waters typically a few miles from the continental shelf, often 10–100 km from the coast in areas of nutrient-rich upwellings that support abundant marine life.^[2]^[32] They show strong fidelity to these specific sites, with geolocator and satellite tracking studies revealing that individuals return to the same wintering locations year after year.^[31]^[30] Densities are highest in these dynamic current systems, where flocks of up to 1,000 birds may congregate in the most productive zones.^[32] Rare vagrants have been recorded in the Indian Ocean and off the coast of Australia, though these occurrences are exceptional and not part of the typical winter range.^[32] Birds arrive at these southern oceanic regions via trans-equatorial migration routes from their Arctic breeding grounds.^[31]

Habitat preferences

Breeding habitats

Sabine's gulls primarily breed in Arctic tundra environments, favoring low-lying wet meadows and coastal plains that feature shallow ponds, freshwater pools, and sedge-grass vegetation such as water sedge, pendant grass, and mosses.^[25] These habitats are typically found along arctic coasts from Alaska through Canada to Greenland and Siberia, providing access to complex wetlands including marshes and tidal flats.^[22] The species selects mossy edges of tundra lakes and ponds, often on small islands within these wetlands, where the terrain supports dense insect populations essential for chick rearing.^[25]^[22] Nest sites are simple ground depressions or tussocks, usually lined with grass, moss, or seaweed, and positioned in areas with high proportions of moss cover and proximity to standing water, such as within 1 m of pond edges.^[24]^[33] These nests occur at low elevations below 100 m, reflecting the coastal and near-shore nature of preferred microhabitats that include brackish or freshwater zones rich in dipteran larvae.^[2]^[34] Gulls often nest in association with Arctic tern colonies for added protection, forming small aggregations of 10–30 pairs.^[22]^[34] Within these colonies, nests are spaced approximately 5–10 m apart on average, promoting predator avoidance through vigilant group monitoring.^[35] Breeding success in these habitats is closely tied to the brief Arctic summer, with nesting confined to snow-free periods in late May to early July, when temperatures allow for rapid incubation and fledging.^[36] Permafrost and persistently low temperatures restrict the suitable range to coastal lowlands, while severe weather events can disrupt nesting by delaying melt or increasing exposure.^[25]^[22] Overall nest densities remain low at 7.6–8.7 nests per km², reflecting a dispersed distribution that balances habitat availability with predation risks in this harsh environment.^[33]^[36]

Non-breeding habitats

During the non-breeding period, Sabine's gulls primarily inhabit pelagic waters over continental shelves, favoring areas with nutrient-rich upwelling zones that support high productivity for foraging. These birds avoid nearshore surf zones, preferring offshore marine environments where cold, nutrient-laden waters rise to the surface, typically several miles from the coast.^[25]^[4]^[2] These habitats generally occur at water depths of 50–200 m along continental slopes, with surface temperatures ranging from 10–20°C in winter currents such as the Humboldt and Benguela systems. Sabine's gulls associate with dynamic ocean features, including nutrient-rich gyres that enhance food availability, and they exhibit minimal land use, relying instead on open water for most activities except brief staging on islands during migration.^[25]^[37]^[4] Well-adapted to marine conditions, Sabine's gulls tolerate stormy seas during their trans-equatorial migrations and engage in diurnal surface feeding, often settling on the water in flocks at nightfall to rest. These behaviors enable them to exploit productive offshore zones throughout the non-breeding season, with concentrations in subtropical and tropical upwelling regions of the southeastern Pacific and Atlantic oceans.^[38]^[31]^[37]

Behavior and reproduction

Breeding biology

Sabine's gulls form long-term monogamous pair bonds and demonstrate strong interannual fidelity to breeding sites, with marked pairs often returning to nest within 70 meters of previous locations. Males typically arrive first on the breeding grounds in late May to early June, claiming territories in marshy tundra habitats before females join them. Breeding occurs in small colonies of 6–15 pairs, occasionally up to 60, where pairs construct shallow ground scrapes lined with grass, moss, or feathers near ponds or wetlands.^[25]^[39]^[40]^[4] Pairs lay clutches of 2–3 slightly pointed, olive-brown eggs speckled with darker greenish-brown spots, with egg-laying commencing shortly after snowmelt in mid- to late June. Incubation is shared equally by both parents and lasts 23–26 days, during which nest attendance remains high at 94–98%. Hatching is typically synchronous across the clutch, producing precocial chicks covered in camouflaged grayish down that leave the nest within hours or days, often relocating to nearby ponds under parental guidance.^[25]^[41]^[2]^[42]^[43] Chicks grow rapidly, achieving near-adult size in body mass and structure by 13–15 days post-hatch, and are fed aquatic insects and small prey by both parents for about 20–25 days until fledging, when they develop short-distance flight capability despite incomplete feathering. Parental care is biparental and equal, encompassing nest defense through dive-bombing or distraction displays, brooding, and provisioning at similar rates between sexes. After fledging, families remain together briefly before departing breeding areas in late July to August, with females often initiating southward migration first.^[42]^[44]^[43]^[25]^[41] Breeding success varies annually due to environmental factors, typically yielding 0.5–1 fledgling per pair, with hatching rates ranging from 21–83% influenced by predation and weather. Primary threats include Arctic foxes, which can decimate clutches during low-lemming years, as well as avian predators like glaucous gulls, and delayed snowmelt that compresses the short Arctic breeding window and reduces phenological synchrony with food availability.^[39]^[42]

Foraging and diet

Sabine's gulls employ a variety of foraging techniques adapted to their seasonal habitats, primarily surface pecking and dipping during the breeding season on Arctic tundra. They walk along shorelines or wade in shallow freshwater ponds and tidal flats to capture prey, occasionally spinning in circles to stir up items from the sediment, similar to phalaropes. Hawking insects in flight and surface-seizing from water are also observed.^[25] During breeding, the diet is predominantly insectivorous, consisting of aquatic and terrestrial insects such as midges (Diptera), beetles, flies, and their larvae, along with amphipods, small fish like Arctic cod and sticklebacks, and occasional polychaete worms or earthworms. This emphasis on insects distinguishes Sabine's gulls from more omnivorous typical gulls, reflecting their reliance on the brief Arctic summer productivity. Adults opportunistically scavenge washed-up marine organisms on beaches or steal food from nearby terns, adapting to local prey availability.^[25]^[2] In the non-breeding season, Sabine's gulls shift to a pelagic lifestyle over open ocean, particularly in upwelling zones off western South America and southern Africa, where they forage by surface-flutter plunge-diving—fluttering low over the water before plunging to 0.5 m depth—or pattering on the surface to herd plankton. The diet transitions to marine invertebrates and small nekton, including zooplankton, crustaceans, small fish such as herring larvae, and squid, captured while swimming or in flight. This opportunistic feeding varies with oceanographic conditions, with gulls also consuming fishing discards or offal.^[25]^[45] Juveniles, accompanying adults post-breeding, initially learn foraging in coastal ponds by targeting insect larvae but refine pelagic techniques like plunge-diving during southward migration and at sea, where prey abundance guides their development.^[25] Sabine's gulls produce a variety of harsh, grating calls that more closely resemble those of smaller terns than typical gulls, often described as chirping, groaning, rattling, or sounding like a rusty clockwork mechanism.^[46]^[47] Common vocalizations include the alarm call, a rapid series of high-pitched "kekekek" notes typically delivered by flying individuals when intruders approach the territory or nest area.^[48] Contact and agonistic calls, such as the Long Call (involving throwback and crouch postures) and Landing Call, are used near the nest when responding to mates or conspecifics, while the Kearr Call ("k'year" or similar) serves in alarm or distress contexts.^[47]^[48] In breeding colonies, birds may employ softer, muffled high-pitched notes during interactions, but they are generally silent while foraging at sea.^[47] Socially, Sabine's gulls form small colonies of 6–15 pairs, occasionally up to 60, during breeding, often nesting in association with Arctic Terns and showing tolerance toward neighboring pairs while vigorously defending a small radius around the nest against intruders.^[49]^[38]^[4] Disputes among conspecifics involve aerial chases and agonistic postures like the Quarter Upright or Hunched, with minimal aggression observed in vagrant individuals outside breeding areas.^[48] Head-tossing displays, accompanied by short high-pitched calls, occur in territorial contexts to signal intent.^[48] Hybridization with other gull species is rare, reflecting their somewhat isolated social structure.^[3] Post-breeding, Sabine's gulls aggregate into large flocks of several hundred individuals at sea, where they mix with other seabirds and engage in group calling and displaying around resource-rich areas like rivermouths and beaches.^[25] They exhibit primarily diurnal activity, with peaks in foraging and social interactions during daylight hours, and show low levels of interspecific aggression beyond colony defense.^[25]^[38]

Conservation

Population status

The global population of Sabine's gull (Xema sabini) is estimated at 330,000–700,000 individuals, with over 340,000 mature individuals reported in assessments as of 2015.^[50]^[4] In North America, the species supports approximately 420,000 breeding individuals, primarily in Canada.^[51] Regional estimates indicate larger concentrations in the Canadian Arctic, where breeding is most abundant in the eastern regions, while populations in Eurasia are considerably smaller, with the European subset comprising only 1,000–2,500 breeding pairs.^[52]^[4] These estimates are derived from aerial surveys in key breeding areas, such as the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta in Alaska, and limited satellite tagging efforts on breeding colonies.^[50]^[37] Overall population trends are stable, with no evidence of significant global decline, though local abundances exhibit fluctuations linked to lemming population cycles that influence predator pressure on nests.^[4]^[53] The species is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (as of 2020), reflecting its large range and stable status.^[4] Population monitoring relies on a combination of methods, including aerial surveys for breeding density, satellite tagging to track movements from select colonies, and citizen science contributions via platforms like eBird, which generate abundance maps and trend data.^[50]^[37] Research from institutions such as the Cornell Lab of Ornithology further supports these efforts through integrated analyses of breeding population estimates.^[25]

Threats and protection

Sabine's gull faces several threats primarily linked to environmental changes and human activities in its Arctic breeding and marine wintering grounds. Climate change poses the most significant risk, as Arctic warming disrupts tundra ecosystems by altering insect availability critical for chick rearing and potentially shifting prey distributions in ocean foraging areas.^[25]^[4] Additionally, predation by arctic foxes, particularly during low lemming years, increases pressure on nests, with climate change potentially altering these dynamics through disrupted lemming cycles and studies showing substantial impacts on hatching success in affected colonies.^[36]^[54]^[53] In marine environments, oil pollution from spills threatens the species during migration and wintering, as seabirds like Sabine's gull are highly vulnerable to contamination that impairs waterproofing and foraging.^[25]^[5] Bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries also presents a risk, particularly in productive ocean regions where the gulls congregate, though documented incidents remain low compared to other seabirds.^[55] Human-induced disturbances, such as limited hunting and egg collection in parts of Russia, add minor pressures but are not globally significant.^[4] Conservation efforts for Sabine's gull emphasize international cooperation and habitat protection. The species is safeguarded under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in the United States and Canada, prohibiting take without permits, and is included in the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) along with Appendix II of the Bern Convention, promoting coordinated monitoring and threat mitigation across its range.^[22]^[4] Arctic monitoring programs, such as those identifying Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas, support ongoing assessments of breeding sites, while proposals aim to designate additional protected marine zones to address climate and pollution risks.^[4] Looking ahead, climate-driven range shifts southward may alter distribution patterns, underscoring the need for adaptive management strategies informed by ecological research.^[25]

References

[1]
Sabine's Gull Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Almost more of a tern than a gull, the little Sabine's Gull is a captivating seabird with a charcoal gray head edged in black, a red eyering, and a black bill ...
[2]
Sabine's Gull | Audubon Field Guide
A small gull with a spectacular wing pattern. Generally a prized sighting for birders, because it nests on tundra of the high Arctic and migrates south at sea.
[3]
Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini - Birds of the World
Sabine's Gull is an arctic gull with a dark gray hood, black bill with yellow tip, and tricolored upperwing. It has a notched tail and is considered an ...
[4]
Sabine's Gull Xema Sabini Species Factsheet | BirdLife DataZone
Sabine's Gull · 9,270,000 km² · Full Migrant · No · 12 · IUCN Red List assessment · 340,000 · Stable · Sub-global Red List assessments ...
[5]
Conservation and Management - Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini
Conservation and Management. Conservation Status. Conservation status on Birdlife LC Least Concern. Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Global population ...
[6]
Xema sabini (Sabine's Gull) - Avibase
Sabine's gull also known as the fork-tailed gull or xeme, is a small gull. It is the only species placed in the genus Xema.
[7]
Sabine's gull (Xema sabini) - Thai National Parks
The Sabine's gull is a small gull, 27 to(-) 33 cm in length and ... Conservation status. Least Concern (IUCN 3.1). Photos.
[8]
Sabine's Gull (Xema sabini) - iNaturalist
Its generic placement is disputed; some authors treat it as the sole species in the genus Xema as Xema sabini, while others retain it in the genus Larus as ...
[9]
Molecular phylogeny and plumage evolution in gulls (Larini)
Dec 25, 2001 · This rate dates the divergence between Larus and Sterna (ΔT50H=4.5) back to 13.5 million years ago (MYA). The evolution rate of our mtDNA ...
[10]
Sabine's Gull - Oiseaux-Birds
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD Vol 3 by Josep del Hoyo-Andrew Elliott ... The Sabine's Gull has four subspecies, although some authors consider this species ...
[11]
World Register of Marine Species - Xema sabini (Sabine, 1819)
Apr 4, 2011 · Subspecies Xema sabini tschuktschorum Portenko, 1939; Subspecies Xema sabini woznesenskii Portenko, 1939. Environment. marine, terrestrial.
[12]
Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini - Observation.org
Treat as monotypic. Includes subspecies palaearctica, tschuktschorum, and woznesenskii (Dickinson & Remsen 2013).
[13]
Edward Sabine - Linda Hall Library
Oct 14, 2016 · On the Ross voyage, a new species of gull was discovered and named Sabine's gull (second image). In the 1830's, Sabine made a strong plea to ...
[14]
Etymology of Xema | BirdForum
Dec 26, 2021 · Joseph Sabine called it Larus sabini without Xeme anywhere and Edward Sabine in the same volume does not mention Xeme. v.12 (1818) - ...
[15]
[PDF] Edward Sabine (1788-1883)
In May 18 19 Sabine returned to the Arctic, this time under. Parry on the Hull-built bomb Heclu. The expedition was a young one - Sabine, at 30, was the oldest ...
[16]
https://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/79287#page/331/mode/1up
[17]
Field Identification - Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini - Birds of the World
No pronounced sexual difference in size, although males average slightly larger than females, and none in plumage. Because rarely found in Northern ...Missing: dimorphism | Show results with:dimorphism
[18]
Sabine's Gull Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
A small, delicate gull with a small head and a slender, straight bill. It has long, pointed wings and a forked tail.Missing: Portenko 1939 tschuktschorum woznesenskii
[19]
Measurements of Pacific Northwest Gulls | University of Puget Sound
Measurements of Pacific Northwest Gulls ; Sabine's Gull, 267 (245-284), 25.5 (22-28), 7.6 (6-8), 0.298 ; Ross' Gull*, 255 (248-265), 19.3 (18-20), 6.1 (5-7) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[20]
Sabine's Gull - birdfinding.info
Breeds from June to August on marshy arctic tundra, mainly coastal, in Siberia, Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Svalbard.Missing: Portenko 1939 tschuktschorum woznesenskii<|control11|><|separator|>
[21]
Plumages, Molts, and Structure - Sabine's Gull - Birds of the World
Black eye-crescent. Remainder of head and neck clove-brown with narrow whitish feather margins and whitish outlining rear of ear coverts. Back, upper rump, and ...
[22]
[PDF] Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini - Alaska Center for Conservation Science
Table 1 Conservation status according to state, national, and international organizations and agencies. ... IUCN. Least Concern. Final Rank. Conservation ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[23]
Distribution - Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini - Birds of the World
Breeds in subarctic and arctic areas between 55°N and 75°N (Figure 1). Breeding Range. Coastal w. and n. Alaska and east across arctic Canada from nw.
[24]
Sabine's gull - Norsk Polarinstitutt
It is a dark-headed gull with a slightly forked tail. Sabine's gulls nest on the ground in moss and grass covered tundra areas, placing their grass and sea-weed ...
[25]
Sabine's Gull Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Almost more of a tern than a gull, the little Sabine's Gull is a captivating seabird with a charcoal gray head edged in black, a red eyering, ...Missing: Joseph 1819
[26]
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[27]
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[28]
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[29]
(PDF) Trans‐equatorial migration, staging sites and wintering area ...
Sabines Gulls breeding in northeast Greenland displayed an average annual migration of almost 32 000 km (n = 6), with the longest return journey spanning close ...
[30]
Migratory Connectivity at High Latitudes: Sabine's Gulls (Xema ...
Dec 14, 2016 · This study confirms a migratory divide for this species in the Nearctic around 96° W. Our work on Sabine's gulls is one of only a few other ...Missing: phylogeny | Show results with:phylogeny
[31]
Movements and Migration - Sabine's Gull - Birds of the World
Arrives Arctic Canada by end of May, although entire breeding range probably not occupied until end of first week of Jun (Snyder 1957b Snyder, L. L. (1957).Missing: expansion warming<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
Factors affecting nest-site selection of Sabine's Gulls in the eastern ...
Sabine's Gull nests were nonrandomly distributed in relation to vegetation, substrate, and proximity to water. Gulls nested within approximately 1 km of the ...
[33]
[PDF] Partitioning of Foraging Habitat by Breeding Sabine's Gulls and ...
Abraham and Ankney: Partitioning of Foraging Habitat by Breeding Sabine's Gulls and A ... Why do Arctic Terns and Sabine's Gulls at East Bay prefer the habitats.
[34]
[PDF] Breeding biology of Sabine'_s Gull Larus sabini in N ortheast ...
centrated group with an inter-nest distance of 6.7. ± 1.4 m. The remaining nests were more widely scattered (Fig. 2). Except for two nests, being 7 metres ...
[35]
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF SABINE'S GULL IN THE ... - BioOne
Nests were dispersed, with a density of 7.6 to 8.7 nests per km2. Sabine's Gulls exhibited strong interannual fidelity to breeding sites. Mean clutch size was ...
[36]
[PDF] SABINE'S GULLS XEMA SABINI OUTSIDE OF THEIR MAIN ...
Aug 16, 2021 · Although these areas are considered the main non-breeding sites for Sabine's. Gull, their full range is not well known (Howell & Dunn 2007).<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Behavior - Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini - Birds of the World
On wintering grounds at sea, apparently diurnal. At nightfall, leaves feeding areas as group and settles and sleeps on water in flocks. Roosts on water and ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[38]
Reproductive Biology of Sabine's Gull in the Canadian Arctic
Sabine's Gulls exhibited strong interannual fidelity to breeding sites. Mean clutch size was lower in 1999 than 1998, and lower in both these years than in 1980 ...Missing: breeding | Show results with:breeding
[39]
https://doi.org/10.1093/condor/103.1.98
[40]
Breeding - Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini - Birds of the World
Usually arrives to colonies in late May to early Jun, when tundra still snow-covered. Arrives on breeding grounds at Southampton I., Canada, when tundra still > ...Missing: lemming | Show results with:lemming
[41]
https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/sabgul/cur/breeding
[42]
Reproductive investment and parental roles in Sabine's Gulls Xema ...
This study examined the behaviour of male and female Sabine's gulls (Xema sabini) during the incubation period and immediately post-hatch; particularly the ...
[43]
Sabines Gull (Larus sabini) - Planet of Birds
Jun 8, 2011 · The Sabine's Gull is a small gull with a graceful, tern-like flight. ... fledging min.: 0, days, fledging max.: 25, days. broods: 1, eggs min ...
[44]
Diet and Foraging - Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini - Birds of the World
Microhabitat For Foraging. During breeding season, primarily freshwater ponds and lakes, secondarily rivers and tidal sloughs and mudflats at low tide; forages ...Missing: depth | Show results with:depth
[45]
Sabine's Gull Sounds, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Sabine's Gull has a variety of very harsh calls, sounding like the grating alarm calls of smaller terns.
[46]
Sounds and Vocal Behavior - Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini
Primary vocalizations variously described as “chirping, groaning, and rattling” that resembles a tern more than that of a gull.Missing: xeme Shetland
[47]
The Breeding Behaviour of Sabine's Gull, Xema sabini - jstor
In contrast to previous observers, we found that few of the gulls nested on inaccessible sites - even though there were several Red Foxes, Vulpes fulva in the ...
[48]
Sabine's Gull — Eastside Audubon Society
Mar 5, 2025 · Sabine's Gull is a seldom-seen ocean bird with a distinctive three-colored wing pattern, breeding in the Arctic and migrating to semitropical ...
[49]
Demography and Populations - Sabine's Gull - Xema sabini
Population Status. Numbers. Global population estimated to number c.330,000 ... IUCN SSC Heron Specialist Group Conservación de Islas Corbidi Fundación ...Missing: 2023 | Show results with:2023
[50]
The State of Canada's Birds - NatureCounts
The Sabine's Gull breeds in relatively small numbers across much of the Canadian Arctic. It migrates across the equator to winter in two different oceans.
[51]
Sabine's Gull (Xema sabini) - Wildlife, plants and species
Aug 19, 2015 · IUCN (Global), Least concern, 2018 ; Wild Species (Canada), Secure, 2015 ...
[52]
The Influence of Weather and Lemmings on Spatiotemporal ...
Jul 1, 2014 · Stenhouse IJ, Gilchrist HG, Montevecchi WA (2001) Reproductive biology of Sabine's gull in the Canadian Arctic. Condor 103: 98–107. 79 ...
[53]
Annual Variation in the Benefits of a Nesting Association Between ...
These gulls are able to defend their nests from avian predators only; in 2002, arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) were abundant, and their primary prey, collared ...
[54]
[PDF] Seabird bycatch vulnerability to pelagic longline fisheries
Some migrants appear in the Western. North Atlantic only seasonally, e.g. Sabine's gull (Xema sabini) from eastern Canada breed in ... fisheries for a full ...