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Screamer

Screamers are a small family of large, goose-like waterfowl (family Anhimidae) native to South America, comprising three extant species known for their distinctive loud, trumpeting calls that can carry up to 3 kilometers.^[1] These birds, which include the horned screamer (Anhima cornuta), northern screamer (Chauna chavaria), and southern screamer (Chauna torquata), inhabit tropical and subtropical wetlands such as marshes, swamps, lagoons, and flooded grasslands, where they primarily feed on aquatic vegetation.^[2]^[1] Physically, screamers measure 76–95 cm in length with a wingspan up to 170 cm, featuring gray to blackish plumage, a small head with a hooked bill, partially webbed feet for wading, and unique bony spurs on their wings used for defense.^[1] They are seasonally monogamous, building large nests of aquatic plants in isolated locations and sharing incubation duties for clutches of 2–7 eggs over 42–47 days, with precocial chicks that fledge within 8–10 weeks.^[1] Although generally not threatened, the northern screamer faces risks from habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural expansion, and the family is considered a basal lineage within the order Anseriformes, closely related to ducks, geese, and swans but distinct in their terrestrial habits and vocalizations.^[1]

Taxonomy and evolution

Classification

Screamers belong to the family Anhimidae within the order Anseriformes, a placement confirmed by molecular and morphological analyses that align them with waterfowl rather than gallinaceous birds.^[3]^[1] Historically, screamers were misclassified alongside Galliformes, such as pheasants, due to superficial similarities in their stout bills and robust build, but anatomical studies, including skeletal features and lamellae on the bill, support their anseriform affinities.^[3]^[4] The family comprises two genera: Anhima, which is monotypic, and Chauna, containing two species. The genus Anhima derives from Tupi indigenous language roots, reflecting early descriptions in South America, while Chauna originates from Greek "khaunos," meaning "silly"; the common name "chaja" for one species directly mimics its vocalization.^[3]^[5] The three extant species are the horned screamer (Anhima cornuta Linnaeus, 1766; synonyms include Palamedea cornuta), distinguished by its cartilaginous horn-like projection on the forehead; the southern screamer or crested screamer (Chauna torquata Oken, 1816), named for its neck collar ("torquata" meaning collared); and the northern screamer or black-necked screamer (Chauna chavaria (Linnaeus, 1766); synonym Palamedea chavaria), characterized by darker neck plumage.^[3]^[6]^[7] Genus-level separation relies on key diagnostic traits: Anhima species feature a unique keratin-covered, horn-like caruncle on the head, absent in Chauna, which instead exhibit a prominent feathered crest and wing spurs more developed for display.^[8]^[3] No formal subfamilies are recognized within Anhimidae, as the genera represent distinct but closely related lineages. The fossil record includes the extinct Chaunoides antiquus Alvarenga, 1999, from the late Oligocene–early Miocene (~26–20 million years ago) of Brazil, the earliest known anhimid species, providing evidence of the family's ancient South American origins.^[9] Screamers diverged early from other Anseriformes, including ducks and geese, forming a basal clade.^[1]

Phylogenetic history

The phylogenetic history of screamers (family Anhimidae) has been shaped by a combination of early morphological interpretations and later molecular analyses that firmly place them within the order Anseriformes. In the 19th century, screamers were often classified alongside galliforms (such as chickens and pheasants) due to superficial similarities in their chicken-like heads and bills, or occasionally linked to gruiforms (cranes) based on overall body form and terrestrial habits.^[10] However, these affinities were challenged by mid-20th-century studies emphasizing anseriform-like skeletal features, and definitively refuted by DNA-based analyses from the 2000s onward, which confirmed their basal position within Anseriformes as the sister group to the clade comprising Anseranatidae (magpie geese) and Anatidae (ducks, geese, and swans).^[11] The fossil record of Anhimidae is sparse but indicates an ancient origin, with the earliest definitive member, Chaunoides antiquus, known from the late Oligocene–early Miocene (approximately 26–20 million years ago) of southeastern Brazil. This species, represented by fragmentary remains including limb bones, exhibits characteristic screamer morphology such as robust legs adapted for walking and a body size comparable to modern species. Earlier potential stem-group relatives, such as a quadrate bone from the early Eocene (about 54.6 million years ago) of Australia, share synapomorphic traits with Anhimidae, suggesting a Gondwanan radiation for the lineage during the Paleogene.^[12] Basal anseriform fossils like Anachronornis anhimops from the latest Paleocene (56–55 million years ago) of North America further highlight screamer-like features in early members of the order, including fowl-like bills and pneumatic bones.^[13] Molecular phylogenetics has provided precise divergence estimates, placing the split between Anhimidae and the Anseranatidae–Anatidae clade at approximately 58.5 million years ago (95% highest posterior density: 48.5–68.4 million years ago), shortly after the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary. These analyses, based on mitochondrial genomes and nuclear genes, underscore Anhimidae's retention of plesiomorphic anseriform traits, such as semi-palmated feet suited for terrestrial foraging rather than swimming. Within Anhimidae, the divergence between the genera Anhima and Chauna occurred around 44 million years ago.^[11] Morphological evidence supports Anhimidae's basal status in Anseriformes, with traits like the unique wing spurs and head crests evolving as anti-predator adaptations for display and combat in open habitats. These features, absent in more derived anseriforms, parallel those in early fossils and reflect an evolutionary trajectory from terrestrial ancestors toward the specialized aquatic forms seen in Anatidae.^[11]

Physical characteristics

Morphology

Screamers (family Anhimidae) are large, bulky birds measuring 76–95 cm in length and weighing 3–5 kg, with a wingspan of approximately 170 cm.^[1] Their overall build resembles that of a goose but with a disproportionately small, chicken-like head, giving them a distinctive, somewhat prehistoric appearance.^[4] Sexual dimorphism is minimal across the family, though males of some species may exhibit slightly larger wingspans.^[14] The plumage of screamers consists of loose, chicken-like feathers providing a fluffy texture, with continuous coverage over the body (without distinct feather tracts), a trait shared only with ducks, pigeons, and sandgrouse.^[3] These feathers lack prominent aftershafts.^[15] A notable feature is the presence of sharp, bony spurs on the wings, located at the carpal joint; the proximal spur can reach up to 6 cm in length and serves a defensive function.^[16] These spurs are present in both sexes and all species. The head of the horned screamer (Anhima cornuta) is adorned with a prominent cartilaginous horn projecting forward from the crown, measuring 10–15 cm in length and composed of a hollow, keratinized structure that can regrow if broken.^[6] In contrast, the two species of crested screamers in the genus Chauna (C. torquata and C. chavaria) feature a wispy crest of elongated feathers on the nape.^[17] Screamers possess a short, chicken-like bill that is slightly hooked and adapted for grazing, with reduced lamellae on the upper mandible.^[2] Their feet are partially webbed between the three forward toes, facilitating semi-aquatic movement, while robust, elongated legs and a hallux support strong terrestrial locomotion.^[1] Species-specific variations include the predominantly black plumage of the horned screamer, accented by white speckles on the crown, throat, and wing coverts.^[6] The southern screamer (Chauna torquata) displays mostly gray plumage with white speckling, a bare red face, and a distinctive white collar of sparse feathers on the neck, bordered by a black band.^[14] The northern screamer (Chauna chavaria) is similarly gray but with a thicker black neck band.^[18]

Adaptations and vocalizations

Screamers possess prominent wing spurs that serve as defensive weapons, particularly in intra-species conflicts. These spurs, present on both wings, consist of fused carpal bones measuring 2 to 6 cm in length, covered by a layer of keratin that gives them a sharp, tapered appearance. They are hollow and develop during the bird's first year, starting as small projections in juveniles and growing to full size by maturity, with gray coloration and pale ivory tips in adults. Both males and females use these spurs aggressively during territorial disputes or mating rivalries, slashing at opponents in close combat to establish dominance or protect resources.^[6]^[16]^[19] The vocalizations of screamers are facilitated by specialized anatomical features, including an inflatable throat region that amplifies sound production. When calling, individuals fully inflate their necks, creating a visible pouch-like expansion that resonates the trumpeting notes, allowing calls to carry over significant distances. This inflation, combined with the bird's syrinx—the avian vocal organ located at the tracheobronchial junction—enables the production of extraordinarily loud sounds audible up to 3 km away, serving functions such as territory defense, alarm signaling, and pair communication. These vocal traits make screamers effective "guard birds" in their wetland habitats, alerting conspecifics and other species to potential threats.^[6]^[1]^[20] Screamer calls vary by context and include alarm screams, territorial honks, and mating duets. Alarm calls are sharp, high-pitched yelps emitted in response to predators or intruders, often repeated rapidly to rally group members. Territorial honks consist of low, throaty sequences resembling goose-like honking or barking "oh-WOOOW" notes, used to delineate boundaries and deter rivals. Mating duets involve synchronized vocal exchanges between pairs, such as the horned screamer's bisyllabic "ha-moo-co" or "moo-coo-ca," performed with shaking heads and inflated necks to strengthen pair bonds during breeding.^[21]^[20]^[22] Beyond vocal and spur adaptations, screamers exhibit traits suited to their semi-aquatic lifestyle, including poor flight efficiency offset by strong swimming capabilities. Their heavy body mass, reaching up to 4 kg, limits sustained flight to short bursts or soaring glides, often averaging just five seconds per flight before preferring to walk or run on land. In contrast, partially webbed feet with long toes and lightweight, pneumatized bones facilitate powerful swimming in wetlands, allowing them to navigate flooded areas effectively while foraging or evading threats. Subcutaneous air sacs further aid buoyancy and reduce overall weight during aquatic movement.^[14]^[23]^[18] Vocal patterns differ among screamer species, reflecting subtle ecological and behavioral variations. The horned screamer (Anhima cornuta) produces less frequent but clamorous duets like "yoik-yok" honks and trumpeting "moo-co" calls, often in forested wetlands. The southern screamer (Chauna torquata) emits more persistent, double-noted trumpets described as "be-SERK" or barking sequences, suited to open pampas. The northern screamer (Chauna chavaria) favors high-pitched yelping "kleer-a-ruk" or "cherio" calls, with males delivering lower-pitched variants during territorial displays in coastal marshes; these differences in frequency and rhythm help distinguish species across overlapping ranges.^[21]^[20]^[18]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The three species of screamers (family Anhimidae) exhibit distinct but partially overlapping distributions across South America, primarily in lowland wetland regions east of the Andes. The horned screamer (Anhima cornuta) has the broadest range among the group, occurring in northern and central portions of the continent, including Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.^[24] Its distribution spans from the Amazon Basin and Orinoco lowlands eastward to southeastern Brazil and northeastern Paraguay, generally at elevations from sea level to 800 m, though records extend up to 1,000 m in some areas such as Colombia.^[24]^[25] The southern screamer (Chauna torquata) is widespread in eastern and southern South America, with a core range encompassing Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.^[26] It occupies areas from northern Bolivia southward to central Argentina (including Buenos Aires Province) and eastward through Paraguay to southern Brazil (Mato Grosso and Rio Grande do Sul), typically at elevations of 0–880 m.^[26]^[27] This species' distribution shows allopatry with the northern screamer but overlaps with the horned screamer in transitional zones of central Brazil and northern Paraguay, where suitable wetland habitats connect their ranges.^[27] In contrast, the northern screamer (Chauna chavaria) has a more restricted and fragmented distribution, confined to northwestern South America in northern Colombia (departments of Chocó, Antioquia, Córdoba, Sucre, Bolívar, Magdalena, Santander, and Cesar) and extreme northwestern Venezuela around Lago de Maracaibo.^[28] Its range occurs at elevations of 0–1,200 m, with populations showing some expansion into converted habitats like pasturelands, though local disappearances have been noted in previously occupied sites.^[28] The northern screamer's distribution is largely allopatric from the southern species but exhibits limited overlap with the horned screamer in northern Colombia and Venezuela.^[18] Vagrancy records include a confirmed sighting of the northern screamer in Panama (Darién Province, El Real) in May 2020, representing the first documentation of any screamer species north of its typical range.

Habitat requirements

Screamers (family Anhimidae) primarily inhabit freshwater wetlands, including marshes and seasonally flooded grasslands, such as those found in the Pantanal of Brazil and the Llanos of Venezuela and Colombia.^[29]^[26] These environments provide the necessary conditions for foraging and cover, with the species showing a strong preference for areas with standing or slow-moving water rather than fast-flowing rivers.^[30] The birds require dense aquatic vegetation, such as sedges (Schoenoplectus californicus), reeds (Typha spp.), and other emergent plants like Eichhornia crassipes and Polygonum spp., for concealment, nesting platforms, and food sources.^[30] Nesting typically occurs on floating or ground-based structures of reeds and sticks in these vegetated zones, ensuring protection from predators and access to resources.^[29] Screamers tolerate shallow water depths up to approximately 1 m for wading and foraging, often observed grazing at the water's edge or in pools where they can stand comfortably.^[14]^[31] They avoid deeper or rapidly flowing waters, which limit their mobility and feeding efficiency.^[30] In response to seasonal flooding, screamers exhibit local movements to higher ground during peak wet seasons in regions like the Pantanal, allowing them to track available shallow wetlands.^[32] These adjustments ensure continued access to suitable foraging areas amid fluctuating water levels that can rise over 3 m in some locales.^[30] While primarily tied to natural wetlands, screamers show some tolerance for human-modified habitats, such as rice fields and cattle pastures that retain wetland characteristics, but they are sensitive to drainage and agricultural intensification, which reduce available shallow, vegetated areas.^[26] Such alterations lead to population declines by disrupting the balance of water and vegetation essential for their survival.^[30]

Behavior and ecology

Foraging and diet

Screamers (family Anhimidae) are primarily herbivorous birds, with a diet dominated by aquatic vegetation, including leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and grasses found in wetland habitats. Common food plants include Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce), and various grasses such as Paspalum dilatatum, alongside sedges and vines.^[33]^[6] Species such as the horned screamer (Anhima cornuta) preferentially graze on Hydrangea spp. and Polygonum hispidum, while the southern screamer (Chauna torquata) consumes a broader range including Trifolium sp. and Poaceae family members.^[33]^[34] The northern screamer (Chauna chavaria) targets leaves of Ludwigia sp., Neptunia prostrata, and Pistia stratiotes, often in grassy areas adjacent to water.^[35] Foraging typically involves grazing, where birds peck at accessible vegetation using lateral head movements while walking or wading in shallow water, accounting for the majority of feeding time (approximately 97% in observed horned screamers).^[33] Digging occurs less frequently (around 3%), involving bill insertion into mud to uproot tubers and roots, followed by possible filtration or swallowing.^[33]^[36] Activity peaks mid-morning to late afternoon, with birds often foraging in pairs or small groups near water edges, though solitary feeding also occurs.^[6]^[36] Juveniles incorporate more animal matter, such as insects, into their diet, which parents may supplement during early development.^[6] Adult screamers occasionally consume invertebrates, but small vertebrates are not a documented component of their diet. Digestive adaptations support their herbivorous lifestyle, featuring a relatively large proventriculus and gizzard for processing tough plant material, along with microbial communities in the gastrointestinal tract that facilitate fermentation of complex carbohydrates.^[36]^[37] These bacteria, particularly in the hindgut, aid in breaking down fibrous vegetation, meeting the high energy demands of their large body size (3–5 kg).^[37] The southern screamer possesses lamellae in the bill for straining finer plant particles from water.^[14] In shared wetland habitats, screamers exhibit limited dietary overlap with large herbivores like cattle, sharing only minor resources such as Ludwigia grandiflora, with niche overlap metrics as low as 0.04 (Morisita-Horn index).^[34] No significant competition with capybaras has been reported, though both utilize similar aquatic vegetation in overlapping ranges. Social grouping during foraging is common, enhancing vigilance in open marshes.^[34] Screamers form monogamous pair bonds that typically last for life or several years, with pairs remaining together year-round and engaging in mutual preening and vocal duets as part of their social maintenance.^[6]^[14] Courtship displays include synchronized calling and slow wing flapping by males to attract or reinforce bonds with females.^[38]^[14] Breeding pairs construct nests as large platforms of reeds, sticks, and vegetation, often floating in shallow water or placed on the ground amid marshy areas; for example, horned screamer nests measure approximately 65 cm in diameter with a shallow depression.^[6]^[33] Clutches consist of 2-6 yellowish-white eggs, laid at intervals of 35-40 hours, which both parents incubate for 40-47 days, with females typically handling daytime duties and males at night.^[6]^[33]^[14] Chicks are precocial, hatching with downy plumage and open eyes, and they leave the nest immediately to follow their parents while being fed regurgitated food for the first 60-75 days; fledging occurs at 2-3 months, after which the young become independent.^[6]^[14] Outside the breeding season, screamers exhibit gregarious behavior, forming flocks of 10-50 individuals (or larger in some populations, up to 100) for foraging and roosting in wetlands.^[14] During breeding, pairs become territorial, aggressively defending areas of 1-5 hectares using vocalizations, displays, and wing spurs against intruders.^[33]^[14] In certain populations, older offspring from previous broods may assist parents in rearing subsequent chicks, contributing to cooperative family groups.^[39]

Conservation status

Population trends

The global population of the horned screamer (Anhima cornuta) is estimated at 25,000–100,000 individuals, equivalent to 16,700–66,700 mature individuals, with the trend assessed as stable.^[24] The southern screamer (Chauna torquata) has a larger estimated population of 100,000–1,000,000 individuals, corresponding to 66,700–667,000 mature individuals, also with a stable trend.^[26] For the northern screamer (Chauna chavaria), the population is estimated at 60,000–130,000 mature individuals, similarly stable at the global level.^[28] All three screamer species are classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List as of the 2023 assessments, reflecting their large populations and lack of evidence for rapid global declines.^[24]^[26]^[28] The northern screamer's global status was uplisted from Near Threatened to Least Concern in the 2023-1 IUCN assessment following improved population estimates. However, the northern screamer is considered Vulnerable at national levels in both Colombia and Venezuela due to localized pressures.^[28] Population trends for screamers show overall stability, though local variations occur; for instance, the southern screamer benefits from adaptation to agricultural wetlands, supporting its steady numbers, while the northern screamer experiences habitat fragmentation in some regions.^[26]^[28] Demographic data from wild populations remain limited, with no comprehensive banding studies providing precise rates for breeding success or adult survival across species. Monitoring efforts rely on wetland surveys and, increasingly, camera traps to track waterbird populations, including screamers, with key data compiled by BirdLife International and Wetlands International through 2023–2025 updates.^[24]^[40] These methods involve standardized counts during breeding seasons and remote imaging in marshy habitats to estimate densities and detect changes.^[41]

Threats and management

Screamers face several anthropogenic threats that impact their wetland-dependent habitats across South America. The primary risks include habitat loss and degradation from the drainage of wetlands for agricultural expansion and cattle ranching, which severely affects all three species by reducing available foraging and breeding areas.^[28]^[24] Illegal hunting and egg collection also pose localized pressures, though the birds' unpalatable meat limits commercial exploitation.^[18] Additionally, water contamination from agricultural runoff and industrial activities threatens water quality in their aquatic habitats.^[18] For the Northern Screamer (Chauna chavaria), classified as Least Concern globally but Vulnerable nationally in Colombia and Venezuela, oil and gas extraction in northern Colombia exacerbates habitat fragmentation in floodplain wetlands, such as those in the Complejo Cenagoso de Zapatosa Ramsar site.^[28]^[42] The Horned Screamer (Anhima cornuta) experiences similar pressures from overgrazing by cattle in Ecuadorian wetlands like El Cañón Lagoon, leading to vegetation loss critical for nesting and cover.^[43] The Southern Screamer (Chauna torquata), while more widespread and stable, is still vulnerable to deforestation in regions like northern Argentina and Paraguay.^[26] Conservation management emphasizes habitat protection and restoration. Key efforts include the designation and maintenance of Ramsar wetland sites in Colombia, such as Complejo Cenagoso de Zapatosa and Ayapel, which safeguard floodplain ecosystems vital for screamers and associated biodiversity.^[42]^[44] In Bolivia, reserves like Barba Azul Nature Reserve protect over 27,000 acres of savanna and wetland habitats, supporting Southern Screamer populations through anti-encroachment measures.^[23] BirdLife International recommends enhancing protected area management to counter degradation, including monitoring threats and promoting environmental education to reduce illegal activities.^[28] These initiatives have contributed to stable population trends for the Southern and Horned Screamers, though ongoing vigilance is needed for the Northern Screamer amid regional development pressures.^[26]^[24]

References

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Screamer, any of three species of South American waterfowl constituting the family Anhimidae (order Anseriformes). The group derives its name from its ...
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Etymology. Ultimately from Old Tupi anhyma. Proper noun. Anhima f. A taxonomic ... Hyponyms. (genus): Anhima cornuta (sole species). Derived terms. Anhimae ...
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References. edit. Primary references. edit · Alvarenga, H. 1999. A Fossil Screamer (Anseriformes: Anhimidae) from the Middle Tertiary of Southeastern Brazil.<|control11|><|separator|>
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The horned screamer Anhima cornuta is a large bird (Fig. 1) which grows to 84-95cm in length and weighs approximately 3.5kg. The bill looks similar to that of a ...
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[21]
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This bird, reaching lengths of 76 to 91 cm, is adorned with a grey ... Notably, the wing is equipped with two sharp spurs at the manus. Around the ...
[23]
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The Southern Screamer (also known as the Crested Screamer) may look ungainly at first glance, with its big body, disproportionately small head, and thick legs.
[24]
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Country/territory distribution ; Suriname, Extant, Native, Resident ; Trinidad and Tobago, Possibly Extinct, Native.
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This species occurs in north-west Venezuela around Lago Maracaibo and north Colombia. Number of locations. Unknown.
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Diet and Foraging - Northern Screamer - Chauna chavaria
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[37]
Bacterial composition along the digestive tract of the Horned ...
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[43]
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At least 68 screamers were observed in the lagoon. The abundance of screamers was lower (six-ten individuals) in more disturbed areas containing farms, ...Missing: post- glacial
[44]
Complejo Cenagoso de Ayapel - Ramsar Sites Information Service
Nov 7, 2022 · In addition, 86 bird species have been recorded, with some of them ... screamer (Chauna Chavaria), and others coming from North America ...