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Semiheavy water

Semiheavy water, chemically denoted as HDO or water-d, is a naturally occurring isotopologue of water consisting of one protium atom (^1H), one deuterium atom (^2H or D), and one oxygen atom (^16O).^[1] It represents an intermediate form between ordinary light water (H_2O) and heavy water (D_2O), exhibiting properties influenced by the mass difference of deuterium, which affects molecular vibrations and reaction kinetics.^[2] Due to the natural abundance of deuterium at about 0.0156 atomic percent in hydrogen, HDO is the second most common isotopic form of water after H_2O.^[1] In Earth's natural water sources, such as oceans and rivers, approximately 1 in 3,200 water molecules is HDO, arising from the statistical combination of protium and deuterium with oxygen.^[1] This abundance makes HDO far more prevalent than pure heavy water (D_2O), which occurs at a ratio of only about 1 in 41 million molecules.^[1] HDO forms spontaneously in any aqueous mixture containing both protium and deuterium, as hydrogen bonds in liquid water facilitate rapid proton-deuteron exchange, preventing stable isolation of pure HDO in bulk quantities.^[3] Its presence is also detected in interstellar environments and proto-planetary disks, where the HDO/H_2O ratio serves as a tracer for the origins and preservation of water molecules from the early universe.^[4] The physical and chemical properties of HDO lie between those of H_2O and D_2O, with the deuterium substitution leading to a molecular weight of 19.02 g/mol, compared to 18.02 g/mol for H_2O and 20.03 g/mol for D_2O.^[5] In the gas phase, HDO displays distinct vibrational modes, including an OH stretch at 3707 cm^{-1}, an OD stretch at 2727 cm^{-1}, and a bending mode at 1402 cm^{-1}, which are shifted due to the reduced mass effect.^[2] In liquid mixtures, HDO contributes to slightly elevated density (around 1.054 g/cm^3) and boiling point (approximately 100.74°C) relative to pure H_2O, though exact values for isolated HDO are challenging to measure owing to its instability as a pure liquid.^[6] Chemically, HDO exhibits kinetic isotope effects, where reactions breaking O-D bonds occur 2 to 10 times slower than those breaking O-H bonds, making it useful for studying reaction mechanisms.^[6] Semiheavy water plays a role in industrial processes for deuterium enrichment, such as the Girdler-sulfide method, where HDO concentration is preferentially altered to produce D_2O for nuclear applications.^[1] In nuclear engineering, HDO has been proposed as a coolant in research reactors, offering lower neutron absorption than H_2O and higher scattering than D_2O, which can enhance thermal neutron flux by up to 6% and improve power distribution for safety.^[7] Additionally, its isotopic labeling enables advanced spectroscopic studies, including isotope-selective ionization with femtosecond lasers, facilitating research on molecular dynamics and bond selectivity.^[8] In astrophysics, HDO abundance measurements help infer the thermal history and delivery mechanisms of water to planets like Earth.^[4]

Overview

Definition and Composition

Semiheavy water, denoted as HDO, is an isotopologue of water consisting of one atom of protium (^1H), one atom of deuterium (^2H or D), and one atom of oxygen-16 (^{16}O).^[1] This molecular formula distinguishes it as a specific variant where the two hydrogen positions in the water molecule are occupied by isotopes of differing mass.^[9] The structure of HDO features covalent bonds between the oxygen atom and the two hydrogen isotopes, analogous to those in ordinary water (H_2O), but the deuterium atom's mass approximately twice that of protium imparts subtle isotopic effects. These effects primarily manifest in altered vibrational and rotational energies, observable in spectroscopic analyses, due to the reduced zero-point energy in the O-D bond compared to the O-H bond.^[1]^[10] In comparison to other water isotopologues, HDO serves as an intermediate form between light water (H_2O, with two protium atoms) and heavy water (D_2O, with two deuterium atoms).^[1] Unlike a statistical mixture of H_2O and D_2O, which would include varying proportions of all three species due to rapid proton-deuteron exchange, pure semiheavy water refers specifically to the HDO molecule as a discrete chemical entity with its unique isotopic substitution.^[11] In natural water, HDO constitutes approximately one molecule per 3,200, reflecting the low natural abundance of deuterium.^[12]

Natural Occurrence

Semiheavy water (HDO) occurs naturally in various environmental reservoirs, including oceans, rivers, and the atmosphere, where it forms as a result of the random statistical distribution of hydrogen and deuterium isotopes in water molecules. In these systems, the equilibrium distribution follows a binomial probability based on the overall D/H ratio, leading to HDO being the predominant deuterated species. The natural abundance of deuterium in hydrogen atoms is approximately 0.0156%, or 1 atom in 6,420, as defined by the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) isotopic standard.^[13] This results in roughly 1 HDO molecule per 3,200 H₂O molecules in standard seawater, calculated from the near-random pairing of isotopes under equilibrium conditions.^[14] The VSMOW standard, derived from Antarctic ocean water, serves as the global reference for hydrogen isotopic compositions, with a D/H ratio of 155.76 ppm.^[13] In contrast to the rarity of fully heavy water (D₂O, occurring at about 1 molecule per 41 million H₂O), HDO dominates natural deuterated water due to the low deuterium fraction favoring mixed isotopologues. Variations in HDO abundance arise from isotopic fractionation processes in the hydrologic cycle; for instance, evaporation from open water bodies preferentially removes lighter H₂O, leading to slight deuterium enrichment (and thus higher HDO proportions) in residual lakes and saline environments.^[15] In polar regions, such as Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, HDO is relatively depleted compared to ocean water because cold precipitation processes further fractionate isotopes, with heavier species condensing earlier along moisture transport paths, resulting in more negative δD values in ice (typically -400‰ or lower relative to VSMOW).^[16] These spatial variations highlight how environmental factors like temperature and evaporation influence the distribution of semiheavy water across natural water bodies.^[15]

Properties

Physical Properties

Semiheavy water (HDO) has a molar mass of 19.0214 g/mol, compared to 18.0153 g/mol for ordinary light water (H₂O), reflecting the substitution of one deuterium atom (mass ≈2 u) for protium (mass ≈1 u). This isotopic difference results in a higher density of 1.054 g/cm³ at 25°C, versus 0.997 g/cm³ for H₂O, due to the increased molecular mass and subtle strengthening of hydrogen bonds from reduced zero-point vibrational energy in the O-D bond.^[17]^[18] The melting point is elevated at 3.81°C, higher than H₂O's 0°C but close to heavy water (D₂O)'s 3.82°C, as the heavier isotope slows molecular rotations and enhances intermolecular forces during phase transitions.^[17] Similarly, the boiling point is 100.74°C, slightly above H₂O's 100°C, arising from the same kinetic isotope effect that lowers the frequency of O-D vibrational modes, stabilizing the liquid phase.^[17] In appearance, semiheavy water is a transparent liquid with a very pale blue tint, stemming from weak absorption in the red region of the visible spectrum due to overtone vibrations of the O-H bond, though partially shifted by the O-D bond toward the infrared.^[19] Additional transport properties include a dynamic viscosity of approximately 1.12 mPa·s at 20°C, higher than H₂O's 1.00 mPa·s at 20°C, as the increased mass reduces molecular diffusion rates and enhances frictional interactions in the liquid.^[17] These variations are primarily governed by kinetic isotope effects, where the twofold mass difference between protium and deuterium alters bond strengths and vibrational amplitudes, leading to overall slower dynamics and higher energy requirements for phase changes compared to light water.^[18]

Chemical Properties

Semiheavy water (HDO) exhibits distinct chemical properties arising from the isotopic substitution of one hydrogen atom with deuterium, which influences molecular bonding and reactivity. The O-D bond in HDO is slightly stronger than the O-H bond due to deuterium's greater mass, resulting in a lower zero-point vibrational energy compared to protium. This difference in zero-point energy strengthens the O-D bond by approximately 5.5 kJ/mol, as the heavier isotope reduces the amplitude of vibrational motion in the ground state.^[20]^[21] The reactivity of HDO is moderated by the kinetic isotope effect (KIE), where reactions involving cleavage of the O-H bond proceed faster than those involving the O-D bond, owing to the higher activation energy required for the heavier isotope. For instance, during water electrolysis, protium is preferentially evolved as hydrogen gas, leading to retention of deuterium in the residual liquid phase with a separation factor typically ranging from 6 to 8. This KIE arises from the slower rate of deuterium transfer in the rate-determining step of hydrogen evolution.^[22] Equilibrium constants for reactions involving hydrogen-deuterium exchange are shifted in HDO compared to H₂O, reflecting differences in bond strengths and vibrational frequencies. A notable example is the autoionization process, where the ionic product (K_w) of HDO is lower than that of H₂O (1.0 × 10^{-14} at 25°C) due to nuclear quantum effects that alter proton transfer rates. These shifts influence acid-base equilibria and proton exchange reactions in mixed isotopic systems.^[23] Solubility and intermolecular interactions in HDO closely resemble those of H₂O, as the polar nature of the molecule is preserved, but subtle isotopic fractionation occurs in biological systems. Deuterium in HDO is preferentially excluded from biomolecules during metabolic processes, leading to depletion in organic tissues relative to surrounding water, with fractionation factors up to 1.2–1.3 in enzymatic reactions.^[24] HDO is chemically stable under ambient conditions but can undergo disproportionation to H₂O and D₂O via the reversible reaction 2 HDO ⇌ H₂O + D₂O, with an equilibrium constant of approximately 3.76 at 25°C favoring HDO formation. This equilibrium shifts under processes like distillation or electrolysis, enabling isotopic separation.^[14]

Production and Isolation

Natural Enrichment Processes

In natural water systems, evaporation serves as a primary mechanism for enriching semiheavy water (HDO) through isotopic fractionation. Lighter water molecules (H₂O) evaporate preferentially over heavier ones (HDO) due to differences in vapor pressure, leading to a progressive increase in the deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ratio in the remaining liquid body—a process known as Rayleigh distillation. This kinetic fractionation is most pronounced in arid environments with low humidity, where the enrichment slope in δD-δ¹⁸O space is lower (typically 3-5) due to dominant kinetic effects, deviating from the equilibrium vapor-liquid fractionation line (slope ~5-8). For instance, in closed-basin lakes like the Dead Sea, continuous evaporation without significant freshwater inflow results in substantial deuterium enrichment, with surface waters exhibiting δD values around +9‰ relative to Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW), compared to typical meteoric waters near 0‰.^[25]^[26]^[27] Phase changes, particularly freezing, also contribute to HDO enrichment, though the direction depends on equilibrium versus kinetic conditions. At equilibrium near 0°C, the fractionation factor α for D/H between ice and liquid water is approximately 1.021, meaning ice preferentially incorporates deuterium, leaving the residual liquid depleted in HDO during initial freezing. However, under rapid, non-equilibrium freezing—common in natural settings like lake surfaces or permafrost—the kinetic effects can reverse this, concentrating HDO in the liquid phase as lighter molecules solidify faster. In the broader hydrological cycle, these processes interact with precipitation and recharge: vapor is depleted in deuterium during cloud formation (δD often -50‰ to -200‰ in rain), while groundwater and surface waters in evaporative regimes become relatively enriched, as seen in arid aquifers where D/H ratios exceed the global average of ~155 ppm.^[28]^[15] Biological processes play a minor role in natural HDO enrichment through selective uptake and metabolic fractionation in plants and animals. Plants, for example, exhibit hydrogen isotope fractionation during root water uptake and transpiration, where metabolic pathways preferentially utilize lighter hydrogen isotopes, slightly enriching HDO in leaf water or biomass by 10-50‰ under certain conditions. In animals, dietary and physiological selectivity—such as during hydration or excretion—can cause small shifts in body water D/H ratios, but these are typically negligible on a hydrological scale compared to physical processes. Geothermal effects minimally alter D/H ratios, as high temperatures (>200°C) reduce equilibrium fractionation between water and vapor, leading to near-unity α values and limited enrichment in hydrothermal systems.^[29]^[30]^[31]

Industrial Separation Methods

Industrial separation of semiheavy water (HDO) primarily involves techniques adapted from heavy water (D₂O) production, as HDO forms an intermediate during deuterium enrichment from natural water sources containing approximately 0.0156% deuterium. These methods exploit differences in physical and chemical properties between H₂O, HDO, and D₂O, such as boiling points, electrolytic decomposition rates, and isotope exchange equilibria, to concentrate HDO. Common approaches include fractional distillation, electrolysis, and chemical exchange processes, often implemented in multi-stage cascades to achieve viable enrichment levels.^[32] Fractional distillation relies on the slight difference in boiling points—H₂O at 100°C, HDO at approximately 100.7°C, and D₂O at 101.4°C under standard conditions—to separate isotopes via repeated vapor-liquid equilibrium cycles. In a packed distillation column, water is boiled and condensed countercurrently, with deuterium-enriched liquid (including HDO) refluxed to the bottom and depleted vapor removed from the top; separation factors range from 1.015 at atmospheric pressure to 1.055 under vacuum at 51°C. Multi-stage cascades are essential due to the small separation factor per stage, requiring processing volumes up to 100,000 times the product rate for significant enrichment. This method is energy-intensive, demanding approximately 100–200 kWh per kilogram of enriched water, and is typically used for final purification rather than primary separation.^[32] Electrolysis exploits the kinetic isotope effect, where protium (¹H) decomposes preferentially over deuterium (²H) during water splitting, concentrating HDO in the residual liquid electrolyte. In alkaline electrolysis cells, water is electrolyzed to produce hydrogen gas (depleted in deuterium) and oxygen, with separation factors of 5–10 depending on conditions like temperature and electrode materials; for instance, platinum-black cathodes enhance selectivity. The process is often run in multiple stages, with the residue recycled, achieving progressive HDO enrichment up to 20–35% deuterium content before switching to distillation. Energy consumption is high at around 120 GJ per kg of D₂O equivalent, primarily due to the overpotential and low current efficiency for deuterium.^[32]^[33] Chemical exchange methods, such as the Girdler-Sulfide (GS) process, utilize isotopic exchange reactions between water and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) to transfer deuterium from gas to liquid phases. In the dual-temperature GS process, water contacts H₂S at hot (130°C) and cold (30°C) stages; the exchange equilibrium favors deuterium enrichment in water at lower temperatures, with separation factors of 2.0–2.4. HDO concentration increases in the aqueous phase as HDS forms in the gas, followed by stripping and recycling; this bithermal cascade can enrich feed water to 15–20% deuterium for downstream electrolysis. Catalysts like wetproofed platinum are used in related hydrogen-water exchanges for higher efficiency. The GS process dominates industrial heavy water production due to its scalability, though it requires corrosion-resistant materials for H₂S handling.^[32]^[34] Modern techniques include laser isotope separation and membrane permeation, aimed at improving efficiency and purity for specialized applications. Laser methods, such as infrared multiphoton dissociation, selectively excite deuterated molecules (e.g., in fluoroethane derivatives) with CO₂ lasers at 10.2–10.6 μm, achieving single-step enrichment factors up to 1400 for deuterium products that can exchange back into water to form HDO. These are experimental but promising for high-purity isolation (>99% HDO) with lower energy than cascades. Membrane permeation uses selective barriers like cellulosic polymers in pervaporation setups, where light water permeates faster than HDO or D₂O through liquid-vapor interfaces; separation factors of 1.05–1.20 have been measured at 20–90°C, with permeance influenced by downstream pressure. Recent advances (as of 2025) include porous metal-organic frameworks like Cu-ZIF-gis for efficient deuterium separation at elevated temperatures and molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) for direct enrichment of HDO and D₂O from low-concentration sources such as tap water. Hybrid systems combining these with traditional methods are under development to reach >99% HDO purity.^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39] These methods face significant challenges, including high energy demands—often exceeding 50 GJ per kg of enriched deuterium—and low single-stage yields, necessitating large-scale facilities for economic viability. Achieving purities above 99% HDO typically requires integrated cascades, with overall separation factors limited by equilibrium constants and process losses; environmental concerns, such as H₂S emissions in GS processes, also drive research into greener alternatives.^[32]

Applications

Scientific Research

Semiheavy water, or HDO, serves as a valuable probe in spectroscopic studies of water structure and hydrogen bonding due to its distinct vibrational and nuclear magnetic properties compared to H₂O and D₂O. In nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, HDO molecules in dilute mixtures allow researchers to investigate diffusion and hydrogen bond dynamics, revealing differences in interactions with H₂O versus D₂O environments through diffusometry measurements. Infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy further exploit HDO's O-H stretch vibrations to map hydration shells around ions and solutes, such as oxometallate anions, where double difference IR techniques highlight the strength and geometry of hydrogen bonds formed with surrounding water molecules. These methods have been instrumental in elucidating combinational vibrational modes in H₂O/HDO/D₂O mixtures, enabling femtosecond stimulated Raman scattering to detect subtle structural perturbations in liquid water clusters. In isotope fractionation studies, HDO facilitates tracing of hydrogen isotopic signatures in ecological and geochemical water cycles, providing insights into biogeochemical processes like evaporation, precipitation, and metabolic transformations. For instance, variations in the HDO/H₂O ratio in atmospheric water vapor have been used to quantify evapotranspiration minus precipitation balances in regions like the Amazon basin, linking isotopic data to terrestrial water fluxes and vegetation responses. In hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry, HDO enrichment or depletion in leaf waxes and lipids reflects biosynthetic fractionations during plant metabolism, where differences among life forms (e.g., grasses versus trees) indicate source water utilization and environmental influences on the global carbon and water cycles. Microbial processes, such as methanogenesis, also exhibit distinct hydrogen isotopic fractionations involving HDO, allowing models to predict δD values in methane and constrain anaerobic respiration pathways in sediments and soils. Biochemical research employs semiheavy water to examine kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) on enzyme-catalyzed reactions, particularly those involving proton transfer or solvent interactions. In hydrogenases, HDO substitution reveals primary KIEs in hydride transfer steps, with rate constants for H₂ versus HD dissociation highlighting quantum tunneling contributions to catalysis in [FeFe]-hydrogenase enzymes. Solvent isotope effects in H₂O/D₂O mixtures, including HDO intermediates, demonstrate how deuteration alters enzyme kinetics in water-dependent processes, such as radical chemistry in electron-initiated reactions, where OH stretch lifetimes in HDO provide evidence for non-covalent isotope influences on reaction barriers. These studies underscore HDO's role in dissecting metabolic rate changes, revealing up to six-fold KIEs in associative proton transfers within aqueous hydroxide systems. Astrophysical investigations utilize HDO detections to probe the origins and evolution of water in space, from interstellar clouds to planetary systems. Observations of HDO in comets like 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko indicate high D/H ratios suggestive of presolar grain formation, linking cometary water to Earth's ocean compositions through isotopic matching. In the interstellar medium and protostellar envelopes, HDO/H₂O ratios inform models of ice formation during star birth, with recent JWST detections of HDO ice toward low-mass protostars confirming its persistence from cold dark clouds. Analysis in planet-forming disks, such as elevated D₂O/H₂O alongside HDO, reveals pristine ices inherited from early star formation phases, providing ratios up to 3.2 × 10⁻⁵ that bridge interstellar chemistry to habitable worlds. In analytical chemistry, semiheavy water supports deuterium labeling strategies in mass spectrometry for proteomics, enhancing resolution in hydrogen-deuterium exchange (HDX-MS) workflows. HDO incorporation during exchange reactions allows mapping of protein conformational dynamics by tracking amide hydrogen replacements, with recommendations for minimizing back-exchange to preserve isotopic signatures in complex mixtures. Cyclic ion mobility separations in HDX-MS further refine HDO-labeled peptide analysis, enabling higher accuracy in quantifying solvent accessibility and folding states across diverse proteomes.

Nuclear and Industrial Uses

In nuclear reactors, semiheavy water (HDO) serves as an alternative coolant and moderator to either light water (H₂O) or pure heavy water (D₂O), offering improved neutronic performance. Studies on conceptual research reactors demonstrate that replacing H₂O with HDO increases the thermal neutron flux, enhancing neutron economy, while also improving axial and radial power distribution by reducing the power peaking factor (PPF), which contributes to greater operational safety.^[7] These attributes make HDO particularly suitable for pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) where moderation efficiency is critical without the need for enriched uranium fuel. In industrial processes, semiheavy water acts as a key intermediate in deuterium production, particularly during electrolytic enrichment stages of heavy water manufacturing. In water electrolysis, isotopic exchange rapidly forms HDO molecules from mixtures of H₂O and D₂O, allowing preferential enrichment of deuterium in the residual liquid phase due to the separation factor favoring D over H (typically 5–8). This intermediate role facilitates the scalable production of deuterated compounds, including deuterium gas used in optical fiber manufacturing to reduce OH absorption peaks and improve light transmission efficiency.^[40] Semiheavy water finds application in pharmaceuticals as a tracer for studying drug metabolism, where deuterated substrates produce HDO as a detectable byproduct via metabolic pathways such as glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle.^[41] This enables non-invasive monitoring of isotopic incorporation in vivo, supporting pharmacokinetic analyses. For purity analysis in heavy water production facilities, specialized tools like the HALO 3 D₂O/HDO analyzer employ cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) to detect trace levels of HDO contaminants at parts-per-billion sensitivity, ensuring quality control for downstream applications.^[42] Compared to pure D₂O, semiheavy water provides advantages in cost and availability due to its higher natural abundance (approximately 0.03% in ordinary water versus 0.0000024% or 1 in 41 million molecules for D₂O), reducing production expenses while maintaining comparable chemical stability in high-radiation environments.^[1]

History and Significance

Discovery and Early Studies

The discovery of deuterium, the heavy isotope of hydrogen, by Harold Clayton Urey in late 1931 laid the foundational groundwork for investigating isotopic variants of water, including semiheavy water (HDO), where one hydrogen atom is replaced by deuterium.^[43] Urey, working at Columbia University with collaborators Ferdinand Brickwedde and George Murphy, detected the isotope through spectroscopic analysis of liquid hydrogen samples enriched by fractional distillation, confirming its presence at approximately one part in 4,500 of ordinary hydrogen.^[44] This breakthrough, announced in their seminal 1932 paper, immediately highlighted the potential for distinct water molecules like HDO and D₂O, as deuterium's incorporation into water would alter molecular properties due to the increased mass.^[44] In the early 1930s, the first isolations of enriched semiheavy water occurred through electrolysis experiments, which preferentially decomposed lighter H₂O over HDO and D₂O, allowing concentration of heavier isotopes in the residual liquid.^[45] Urey and his team demonstrated this method in their 1932 work, using repeated electrolysis of water to enrich deuterium content up to detectable levels.^[44] By 1933, Gilbert N. Lewis, Urey's former mentor at the University of California, Berkeley, advanced these efforts by preparing small quantities of enriched heavy water, including samples approaching pure D₂O, via exhaustive electrolysis, with intermediate stages yielding enriched HDO mixtures; Lewis's process, detailed in publications that year, started from large volumes of ordinary water.^[45] These isolations confirmed HDO's role as a key intermediate in isotope separation, naturally occurring at low levels in water due to deuterium's abundance.^[44] Initial studies of semiheavy water's properties focused on mixtures enriched via electrolysis, with measurements of density and freezing point reported in 1930s publications. Lewis and collaborators, including Ronald T. Macdonald, quantified the density of heavy water samples (including HDO-enriched forms) at around 1.1056 g/cm³ at 20°C, higher than ordinary water's 0.9982 g/cm³, attributing the difference to isotopic mass effects. Freezing point determinations for heavy water variants, approaching 3.8°C for D₂O and slightly lower for HDO mixtures, were similarly documented, revealing subtle shifts that informed equilibrium isotope effects in phase transitions. These early quantitative assessments, building on Urey's foundational paper, established HDO's distinct physical behavior without delving into exhaustive chemical reactivity at the time.^[44] During World War II, research on semiheavy water intensified alongside heavy water production for nuclear programs, where HDO emerged as a byproduct in electrolysis and distillation processes aimed at yielding pure D₂O for neutron moderation. Allied and Axis efforts, including U.S. and Norwegian facilities, scaled up separation methods, inadvertently generating HDO-rich residues during the purification of deuterium oxide for potential atomic applications, though primary focus remained on D₂O. These wartime studies underscored HDO's prevalence in partially enriched samples, reinforcing its significance in isotope geochemistry and nuclear materials preparation.

Modern Developments

In recent years, advancements in space astronomy have significantly enhanced our understanding of semiheavy water's (HDO) role in the origins of water in the Solar System. Observations from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2025 detected the 4.1 μm HDO ice feature for the first time toward the low-mass protostar L1527 IRS, a system potentially evolving into a Sun-like star, revealing high abundances of HDO ice in protostellar envelopes.^[46] Similarly, high-resolution spectra from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) identified elevated HDO levels in planet-forming disks around young stars, with deuteration ratios linking these interstellar ices directly to the isotopic composition of comets and potentially Earth's water.^[47] These detections, reported in mid-2025, underscore HDO as a tracer for pristine interstellar material inherited by planetary systems.^[48] In paleoclimate research, HDO fractionation models have become integral to reconstructing ancient temperatures from ice core records. The δD signature, derived from HDO/H₂O ratios, serves as a robust proxy for past atmospheric temperatures, with fractionation during ice deposition amplifying isotopic differences under colder conditions. Laboratory measurements in 2017 quantified the equilibrium fractionation factor (α_eq) for HDO between vapor and ice in simulated cirrus clouds, improving model accuracy for glacial-interglacial temperature variations spanning millennia.^[49] These refinements enable more precise calibration of proxy data from Antarctic and Greenland cores, revealing shifts in hydrological cycles over the Holocene.^[50] Technological innovations in HDO separation have expanded its utility in biotechnology, particularly for stable isotope probing (SIP) in microbial DNA studies. A 2022 development of "flip-flop dynamic crystals" achieved efficient separation of HDO from mixtures of H₂O and D₂O vapors, enabling higher-purity isotopologues for labeling experiments. This method supports deuterium-based SIP, where HDO incorporation into biomolecules traces metabolic pathways, as demonstrated in soil bacteria growth assays that distinguish active taxa during environmental perturbations like rewetting.^[51]^[52] Such advancements facilitate quantitative assessments of microbial community dynamics in complex ecosystems, with applications in bioremediation and agriculture. High-resolution spectroscopy has illuminated HDO's dynamics in Earth's atmospheric water vapor. Ground-based Fourier transform spectrometers, operating in the near-infrared, have mapped HDO columns with sub-ppm precision, revealing its enrichment in tropospheric vapor due to evaporation and condensation processes. Complementary remote sensing from 2022 retrieved HDO profiles in southern California, highlighting its role as a tracer for moisture transport in the hydrological cycle.^[53] These techniques, building on global databases of vapor isotopes, provide insights into cloud formation and precipitation efficiency.^[54] Looking ahead, HDO holds potential in advanced nuclear applications, including fusion research and enhanced moderators. Conceptual studies propose HDO as a coolant in research reactors, offering improved neutron economy over H₂O by boosting thermal flux and reducing power peaking factors, which could optimize safety in next-generation designs.^[7] In fusion contexts, HDO's isotopic properties may aid tritium production and moderation in heavy-water-based systems, supporting sustainable energy pathways amid growing demand for efficient neutron handling.^[55]

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Semiheavy water, chemically designated as HDO or H2HO, represents a unique isotopologue of water wherein one protium atom (1H) is replaced by deuterium (2H ...
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HESS - Technical note: Isotopic fractionation of evaporating waters
Jan 16, 2024 · During evaporation of water in a natural environment, lighter water molecules usually vaporize more quickly than heavier ones, so that the ...Missing: semiheavy | Show results with:semiheavy
[25]
Deuterium in the Dead Sea: Remeasurement and implications for ...
Remeasurement of δD in Dead Sea waters, using improved analytical techniques for handling concentrated brines, removed most of the scatter in previous data.
[26]
[PDF] Isotopic enrichment of liquid water during evaporation ... - Lee Lab
Isotopic fractionation effects determine the isotopic composi- tions of both the evaporating vapor and the residual water by dis- criminating heavier isotopes ...Missing: semiheavy | Show results with:semiheavy
[27]
Equilibrium oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope fractionation between ice ...
Jan 20, 2017 · We report here on experimental results for the fractionation between ice and water in 18 O/ 16 O and D/H. Our aim was to obtain high accuracy and especially to ...<|separator|>
[28]
Metabolism is a major driver of hydrogen isotope fractionation ...
We found fractionation signals (i.e. temporal variability in deuterium abundance) at glucose H1 and H2 introduced by closely related metabolic processes.<|separator|>
[29]
Deuterium Isotope Effect on Carbon Isotope Fractionation ... - Science
Plants grown in D2O show a decreased tendency to fractionate carbon-13 during photosynthetic incorporation of carbon dioxide. The isotopic ratio C13/C12 of ...
[30]
Kinetics of D/H isotope fractionation between molecular hydrogen ...
At equilibrium, the D/H isotope fractionation factor between H2 and H2O (αH2O-H2(eq)) is a sensitive indicator of temperature, and has been used as a ...
[31]
[PDF] Heavy Water: A Manufacturers' Guide for the Hydrogen Century
As an isotope of hydrogen, its separation from normal hydrogen is surprisingly easy but its extremely low natural abundance makes such separation relatively ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
Electrochemical H/D isotope separation - RSC Publishing
May 16, 2025 · Based on the kinetic results, deuterium was effectively separated as part of the produced water through the oxidation reaction. The ...Missing: retention | Show results with:retention
[33]
Selecting Heavy Water Processes - ACS Publications
Jun 1, 1978 · In this way it will show why the GS (Girdler-Sulfide) process has dominated heavy water production for 25 years. It will also review the ...
[34]
Deuterium separation with 1400‐fold single‐step isotopic ...
Deuterium separation with 1400‐fold single‐step isotopic enrichment and high yield by CO2‐laser multiple‐photon dissociation of 2,2‐dichloro‐1,1,1‐ ...
[35]
Investigation of the separation factor between light and heavy water ...
Results of measurements of the separation factor between light and heavy water during membrane permeation are presented.
[36]
Separation behavior of hydrogen isotopes via water pervaporation ...
In this study, we investigated pervaporative hydrogen isotope separation behaviors in proton-conductive membranes.
[37]
Fibre Optics Applications Of Deuterium | Isowater® Corp
Deuterium replaces some of the protium on the fibre cables, which reduces the chemical reaction rate leading to deterioration of the light transmission.Missing: semiheavy HDO
[38]
HDO Imaging of the Rat Brain Following Metabolism of [2H7]glucose
Metabolic imaging of HDO, as a marker of glucose, lactate, and glx metabolism, has been shown here for the first-time.
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Advances and prospects in deuterium metabolic imaging (DMI)
Jun 3, 2024 · ... HDO Semiheavy water, TCA Tricarboxylic acid. Most tracers were produced from the deuteration of protonated metabolites that are associated ...
[40]
HALO 3 D 2 O/HDO CRDS Laser-Based Analyzer - Process Insights
With drift-free stability and rapid response time, the HALO 3 D2O/HDO analyzer is ideal for continuous, online gas monitoring that is critical to process ...
[41]
What is heavy water (Deuterium Oxide) ? | Definition, Formula ...
Jan 6, 2021 · There are various methods including chemical exchange (isotopic), distillation, electrolysis, membrane application, thermal penetration, laser, ...
[42]
Harold Urey and the discovery of deuterium - Physics Today
It was on Thanksgiving day in 1931 that Harold Clayton Urey found definitive evidence of a heavy isotope of hydrogen. Urey's discovery of deuterium is a story ...
[43]
A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and its Concentration | Phys. Rev.
An isotope of hydrogen with mass number two has been found present to the extent of one part in about 4000 in ordinary hydrogen; no evidence for was obtained.Missing: heavy water
[44]
Concentration of H<SUP>2</SUP> Isotope - ADS
Lewis, Gilbert N. ;; Macdonald, Ronald T. Abstract. A method is described of producing any desired concentration of the isotope of hydrogen, H2, by ...Missing: HDO | Show results with:HDO
[45]
HDO Ice Detected toward an Isolated Low-mass Protostar with JWST
Jun 16, 2025 · We present the first detection of the 4.1 μm HDO ice feature with JWST toward a low-mass protostar, L1527 IRS, which may eventually grow to a Sun-like mass.
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Pristine ices in a planet-forming disk revealed by heavy water - Nature
Oct 15, 2025 · The high D2O/H2O ratio of (3.2 ± 1.2) × 10−5 is consistent with values seen in protostellar envelopes and a comet and is 2 orders of magnitude ...
[47]
Semi-heavy water ice detected around young Sun-like star
Jun 23, 2025 · An international team of astronomers has now detected a high ratio of semi-heavy water ice in a protostellar envelope.
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(PDF) Laboratory measurements of HDO/H2O isotopic fractionation ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We present here the first direct experimental measurements of the HDO/H 2 _2 O equilibrium fractionation factor between vapour and ice ( α e q \ ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Water stable isotope ratios in ice cores - COLDEX
The basis of the interpretations of water-isotope ratios in polar ice cores is the essential role of water in the climate system, in particular the net ...
[50]
New material separates water from heavy water - Phys.org
Nov 9, 2022 · When the scientists exposed their "flip-flop dynamic crystals" to vapor containing a mixture of normal, heavy and semi-heavy water and then ...Missing: HDO developments
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Validation of Heavy-Water Stable Isotope Probing for the ... - NIH
In this study, we used heavy-water stable isotope probing (H218O-SIP) to identify bacteria that respond to soil rewetting. First, we conducted experiments to ...Qpcr Detection Of O-Labeled... · Results · DiscussionMissing: biotechnology | Show results with:biotechnology
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Ground-Based Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Water Vapor Using ...
Jul 11, 2023 · In this study, we retrieved the ground layer, tropospheric and total columns of H2O using ground-based high-resolution Fourier transform ...2. Instrument And Retrieval... · 2.3. The Retrieval Strategy... · 3. Results And Discussion
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[PDF] Remote sensing of atmospheric HDO/H2O in southern California ...
Atmospheric isotopologues of water vapor (e.g., HDO) are important tracers for understanding Earth's hydrological cycles. Most remote sensing and in-situ ...
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A global database of water vapor isotopes measured with high ...
Jan 22, 2019 · We have assembled a global database of high temporal resolution stable water vapour isotope ratios (δ 18 O and δD) observed using this measurement technique.
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[PDF] Hydrogen and its detection in fusion and fission nuclear materials
Heavy water, D2O, is used as a moderator in CANDU reactors [21]. Because deuterium is twice as massive as hydrogen, less energy is transferred per neutron ...Missing: HDO semiheavy