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Shirkuh

Asad ad-Din Shirkuh (d. 1169), a Kurdish commander in the Zengid army, rose to prominence as a key general under Nur ad-Din, leading military campaigns that secured Syrian dominance over Fatimid Egypt and thwarted Crusader interventions there.^[1]^[2] His expeditions into Egypt, beginning in 1164 amid internal Fatimid instability, involved alliances with local viziers and decisive battles against King Amalric I of Jerusalem, culminating in the 1169 conquest that installed Shirkuh as vizier to the Fatimid caliph al-Adid.^[1]^[2] Dying shortly after his appointment from illness, Shirkuh's position passed to his nephew Yusuf ibn Ayyub—later known as Saladin—who leveraged the foothold to dismantle Fatimid rule and establish the Ayyubid dynasty, marking a pivotal shift in Islamic power dynamics against both Crusader states and rival Muslim factions.^[1]^[3]

Personal Background

Name and Etymology

Asad ad-Dīn Shīrkūh bin Shādhī, commonly known as Shirkuh, bore a name of Kurdish origin where "Shirkuh" (or Şêrko) literally translates to "lion of the mountain," combining "şêr" for lion and "kuh" for mountain.^[4]^[5] His Arabic honorific, Asad ad-Dīn, means "lion of the faith," a title evoking strength and religious devotion commonly bestowed on Muslim military leaders.^[6] In contemporary Latin chronicles, such as those by William of Tyre, his name appeared as Siraconus, reflecting phonetic adaptations in European records of the era.^[6]

Family Origins and Early Life

Asad al-Dīn Shīrkūh bin Shādhī, commonly known as Shirkuh, was born in the early twelfth century to a Kurdish family of the Rawadiya tribe, a branch of the larger Hadhabani confederation that had settled in the region of Dvin in northern Armenia.^[7] His father, Shādhī ibn Marwān, served as part of the local political-military elite under the Shaddadid emirs in Dvin and held ties to this dynasty, which had ruled parts of Armenia and Azerbaijan.^[7] Shīrkūh's older brother, Najm al-Dīn Ayyūb, would later become the father of Saladin, establishing the core of the Ayyubid lineage.^[7] The family's position in Dvin ended around 1130 when Turkish generals deposed the last Shaddadid ruler, prompting Shādhī to relocate with his sons to Iraq in search of opportunities under Seljuk authority.^[7] There, Shādhī secured an appointment as governor of Tikrit through his alliance with the Seljuk military governor Mujahed al-Dīn Bihrūz, leveraging connections from his Shaddadid service.^[7] This move marked the family's transition from regional Armenian politics to broader Islamic military networks in Mesopotamia. In 1138, following Shīrkūh's reported involvement in a violent incident and aid to Imad al-Dīn Zengī during a regional conflict, the family faced arrest warrants in Tikrit and fled to Mosul, entering the orbit of Zengī's atabegate.^[7] This exile positioned the young Shīrkūh for initial military exposure under Zengī's forces, though detailed records of his personal activities prior to formal service remain sparse.^[7]

Rise in Zengid Service

Entry into Military Service

Shirkuh, originally from a Kurdish family settled in Tikrit, entered military service in the army of Imad al-Din Zengi, the atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo, following a violent incident that prompted his family's exile from the city around 1138. Accounts describe Shirkuh killing a man—reportedly a Christian scribe or official—in a personal dispute or argument within Tikrit's citadel, which incurred the wrath of local authorities and led to the banishment of Shirkuh, his brother Najm al-Din Ayyub, and their households.^[8]^[9]^[10] This event marked the transition of the family from regional governance in Tikrit to mercenary roles under Zengi, whose campaigns against the Crusaders provided opportunities for skilled warriors like Shirkuh. Upon joining Zengi's forces, Shirkuh quickly distinguished himself as a capable commander, leveraging his martial prowess in the turbulent politics of northern Mesopotamia and Syria. Zengi, known for recapturing Edessa from the Crusaders in 1144, integrated Kurdish officers such as Shirkuh into his multi-ethnic army, where they contributed to efforts against both Frankish states and rival Muslim factions. Following Zengi's assassination in 1146, Shirkuh seamlessly transferred his allegiance to Zengi's son, Nur al-Din, continuing his rise within the Zengid hierarchy and eventually receiving commands over territories like Homs.^[7]^[11]

Key Campaigns Prior to Egypt

Shirkuh rose to prominence in Nur ad-Din's service through active participation in campaigns to consolidate Zengid control over Syria and counter Crusader threats in the late 1140s and 1150s. Following Nur ad-Din's accession after Imad al-Din Zengi's death in 1146, Shirkuh, alongside his brother Najm al-Din Ayyub, aligned with the new ruler and contributed to military efforts against fragmented Muslim rivals and Frankish principalities.^[12] His forces formed part of the Zengid army that achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Inab on 29 June 1149, where Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, was killed amid the rout of Crusader and Armenian contingents; historical accounts attribute the beheading of Raymond to Shirkuh himself, with the head preserved in a silver casket and dispatched to Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtafi in Baghdad as a trophy.^[13] This triumph weakened Antioch's defenses and enabled Nur ad-Din to seize key fortresses like Apamea and Ma'arrat al-Nu'man shortly thereafter, enhancing Zengid dominance in northern Syria.^[14] In recognition of his valor at Inab and subsequent loyalties, Nur ad-Din enfeoffed Shirkuh with Homs and adjacent territories, including ar-Rahba, around 1150, establishing him as a semi-autonomous vassal responsible for defending central Syria's frontiers.^[15] As emir of Homs, Shirkuh undertook defensive operations against Crusader raids from the County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, while suppressing local unrest among Turkmen tribes and rival emirs to maintain Zengid authority. He also supported Nur ad-Din's broader jihad, including the 1157 offensive into Crusader territory that reached the Sea of Galilee but ended prematurely due to the ruler's wounding; Shirkuh's regional command facilitated logistics and reinforcements for such expeditions. These efforts honed his strategic acumen, positioning him as Nur ad-Din's most trusted general by the early 1160s, prior to the shift toward Egyptian interventions.^[16]

Egyptian Military Campaigns

First Expedition (1163–1164)

In 1163, Shawar, the deposed Fatimid vizier, sought military assistance from Nur ad-Din Zengi after being overthrown by his rival Dirgham, promising substantial tribute in exchange for restoration to power.^[2] Nur ad-Din, viewing Egypt as a strategic opportunity to counter Crusader influence and bolster Zengid resources, dispatched Asad al-Din Shirkuh with an expeditionary force in April 1164, accompanied by Shirkuh's nephew Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (later known as Saladin).^[2] ^[17] The army, comprising Kurdish and Turkish troops, crossed the Sinai Peninsula via a southern route to evade Crusader patrols but endured heavy losses from a severe sandstorm that decimated horses and supplies.^[2] Upon reaching the Nile Delta, Shirkuh's forces swiftly captured Bilbais, a key fortress east of Cairo, defeating Dirgham's army in the process.^[2] Advancing toward Cairo, they allied with Bedouin tribes and routed Egyptian loyalists outside the city on 18 July 1164, leading to Dirgham's death and the collapse of his regime.^[2] Shirkuh entered Cairo unopposed, installing Shawar as vizier under Fatimid Caliph al-Adid and securing initial pledges of annual tribute equivalent to one-third of Egypt's revenues to Nur ad-Din.^[2] However, Shawar quickly reneged on his commitments, fearing Zengid dominance, and forged an alliance with King Amalric I of Jerusalem, who had previously invaded Egypt in 1163 and sought to exploit Fatimid instability.^[2] ^[18] Amalric's Crusader army, reinforced by Shawar's Egyptian troops, besieged Shirkuh at Bilbais from August to October 1164, aiming to eliminate the Zengid presence.^[2] The prolonged standoff strained both sides, with Crusader logistics faltering amid disease and supply shortages.^[2] Concurrently, Nur ad-Din's decisive victory over a Crusader-Byzantine force at the Battle of Harim on 11 August 1164 compelled Amalric to divert attention to threats in Syria, weakening the siege.^[2] Negotiations ensued, culminating in a truce by late October: Shirkuh agreed to evacuate Egypt, Amalric withdrew his forces without conquest, and Shawar retained the vizierate while recommitting to tribute payments to Damascus, though these were often delayed or partial.^[2] The expedition, though short of annexing Egypt, established a foothold for future Zengid interventions by demonstrating military viability against Fatimid disarray and Crusader ambitions, while enhancing Shirkuh's reputation as a commander capable of rapid maneuvers in hostile terrain.^[2] Shirkuh returned to Syria with his surviving forces, leaving Shawar temporarily secure but vulnerable to renewed appeals for aid.^[2]

Second Expedition (1166–1167)

In late 1166, Nur al-Din dispatched Shirkuh on a second expedition to Egypt with approximately 2,000 cavalry, including key emirs and his nephew Yusuf ibn Ayyub (later Saladin), to counter the growing Frankish influence and reassert Zengid control amid Vizier Shawar's shifting alliances.^[1]^[19] The force departed from Syria in January 1167, advancing rapidly into Egypt where Shirkuh initially occupied the fortified town of Bilbeis to secure his supply lines against Shawar's forces.^[1] Shawar, fearing Zengid dominance, appealed to King Amalric I of Jerusalem for aid, prompting the Franks to invade Egypt concurrently with an army estimated at 10,000-20,000 men, aiming to exploit the chaos for territorial gains.^[19]^[20] The campaigns converged in a decisive clash at the Battle of al-Babayn (also known as Babain or El-Ashmunein) on March 18, 1167, near the Nile's west bank south of Cairo. Shirkuh, outnumbered by Amalric's heavier Frankish cavalry, employed a tactical formation with Saladin commanding the center using light troops and archers to disrupt enemy charges, while Shirkuh flanked with mounted warriors; this negated the Crusaders' armored advantage, resulting in a hard-fought Zengid victory that halted the Frankish advance and inflicted significant casualties without decisively eliminating the threat.^[20]^[21] Following the battle, Shirkuh maneuvered northward to Alexandria, which he fortified as a base, drawing Amalric's forces into a prolonged siege from April to August 1167.^[22] The Siege of Alexandria saw Shirkuh's smaller force hold the city against Amalric's blockade, bolstered by naval support from Byzantine allies, but supply shortages and mutual exhaustion led to negotiations brokered by envoys. Under the terms, Shirkuh agreed to evacuate Egypt, handing Alexandria to Shawar, while the Franks withdrew without conquest, preserving Zengid options for future intervention but temporarily ceding ground to the Fatimid vizier and his Frankish pact.^[22] This outcome underscored Shirkuh's strategic resilience against superior numbers, though it highlighted the fragile balance of alliances in Egypt, with Shawar's duplicity toward both Zengids and Franks eroding his position.^[19] The expedition, spanning late 1166 to mid-1167, ended without territorial gains for Shirkuh but demonstrated Zengid military prowess and set the stage for renewed efforts.^[1]

Third Expedition and Fall of the Fatimids (1168–1169)

In October 1168, King Amalric I of Jerusalem invaded Egypt for the fourth time, capturing the fortress of Bilbeis after a siege and massacring its garrison of 10,000 defenders.^[2] Advancing toward Cairo, Amalric blockaded the city, prompting Fatimid vizier Shawar to seek urgent aid from Nur ad-Din despite prior tensions.^[2] Nur ad-Din responded by dispatching Asad al-Din Shirkuh on 17 December 1168 with an expeditionary force of approximately 2,000 cavalry, supplemented by infantry and allies, including his nephew Saladin as a key commander.^[23] Shirkuh's army crossed the Sinai Peninsula, enduring a severe sandstorm that caused significant losses but reached Egypt intact enough to threaten the Crusader position.^[2] Shirkuh's arrival forced Amalric to abandon the siege of Cairo; lacking resources for a prolonged campaign and facing the new threat, the Crusaders retreated northward, burning warehouses in Fustat on 7 March 1169 to deny supplies to the approaching Muslims.^[24] With the Franks withdrawn, Shirkuh turned against Shawar, whom he viewed as unreliable and a barrier to Zengid control.^[2] On 9 January 1169, Shirkuh entered Cairo triumphantly without opposition, leveraging the caliph's desperation for support.^[2] He executed Shawar on 18 January 1169 and was appointed vizier by the Fatimid caliph Al-Adid, granting him command over the caliphate's armies and administration.^[2] As vizier, Shirkuh prioritized military reorganization and Sunni influence, appointing Kurdish and Turkish officers to key posts and marginalizing Shi'a elements within the Fatimid structure.^[23] This shift undermined the caliph's authority, as real power rested with the Zengid-backed regime, setting the stage for the caliphate's collapse.^[2] Shirkuh died suddenly on 23 March 1169, likely from overeating or illness, after less than three months in office.^[2] Saladin succeeded him as vizier, consolidating control and, by 1171, abolishing the Fatimid Caliphate entirely, restoring Abbasid Sunni orthodoxy and integrating Egypt into the broader jihad against the Crusader states.^[2] The expedition thus marked the decisive Zengid penetration of Egypt, precipitating the end of two centuries of Isma'ili Shi'a rule.^[2]

Vizierate and Immediate Aftermath

Appointment as Vizier

Following the retreat of Crusader forces from the vicinity of Cairo in late 1168, Shirkuh's army advanced into the city in January 1169, capitalizing on the collapse of Fatimid resistance and the elimination of internal rivals.^[1] Upon entry, Shirkuh ordered the execution of Shawar, the incumbent vizier whose alliances had shifted unpredictably and who posed a threat to Zengid objectives in Egypt.^[10] This act cleared the path for Shirkuh's consolidation of military and administrative control under the nominal authority of the Fatimid caliph. On January 18, 1169, the young Fatimid caliph Al-Adid, then aged around 17 and facing existential threats from external powers, formally invested Shirkuh as vizier, granting him sweeping powers over the caliphate's armies, finances, and governance.^[11] The appointment represented a strategic maneuver by Al-Adid to leverage Shirkuh's proven military prowess against ongoing Crusader-Byzantine incursions, while Shirkuh pursued Nur ad-Din's broader aim of subordinating Egypt to Zengid Sunni influence, effectively undermining the Shi'a Fatimid regime's autonomy.^[1] As vizier, Shirkuh immediately prioritized fortifying Cairo's defenses and integrating Syrian troops into the Egyptian forces, though his Sunni orientation introduced tensions with the caliphate's Ismaili establishment.^[25] Shirkuh's vizierate, lasting less than three months until his death on March 23, 1169, marked the zenith of his career but highlighted the precarious balance of power; historical accounts note that Al-Adid's reliance on a non-Ismaili outsider like Shirkuh stemmed from desperation amid Fatimid decline, yet it accelerated the caliphate's erosion by embedding foreign loyalists in its core institutions.^[7]

Death and Power Transition

Shirkuh died on 23 March 1169, less than three months after his appointment as vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate.^[26] His death resulted from indigestion following a feast, exacerbated by his obesity and history of overeating rich foods during the Egyptian campaign.^[26] ^[10] The sudden vacancy created a potential power struggle among the Syrian Zengid forces in Egypt, as Nur ad-Din considered alternative successors to maintain control, but the young Fatimid caliph al-Adid prioritized stability by appointing Shirkuh's nephew and chief deputy, Saladin (Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb), as vizier on 26 March 1169.^[26] ^[27] This formal endorsement legitimized Saladin's command over the approximately 10,000 Syrian troops stationed in Cairo and the Delta, preventing fragmentation.^[28] Saladin immediately consolidated authority by integrating Zengid officers into key administrative roles, sidelining Fatimid loyalists, and securing the loyalty of local Egyptian forces through payments and demonstrations of competence.^[27] Although Nur ad-Din nominally oversaw the vizierate from Damascus, Saladin's de facto control marked the beginning of a gradual shift toward Sunni Abbasid alignment, undermining the Shi'a Fatimid establishment without immediate revolt.^[28] No significant challenges to the transition emerged in the short term, as Shirkuh's prior elimination of rivals like vizier Shawar had already neutralized internal opposition.^[26]

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Military Achievements and Strategic Impact

Shirkuh's military achievements centered on three expeditions into Egypt between 1163 and 1169, aimed at countering Fatimid instability and Crusader incursions while advancing Zengid interests under Nur ad-Din. In the first campaign (1163–1164), he commanded a force that crossed the Sinai Desert to restore the Fatimid vizier Shawar, defeating rival vizier Dirgham near Bilbays on 18 January 1164 with an estimated army of several thousand, though exact figures vary in contemporary accounts.^[29] This operation secured temporary Zengid influence but ended in evacuation due to Crusader pressure from King Amalric I. The second expedition (1166–1167) featured a decisive victory at the Battle of al-Babein on 18 March 1167, where Shirkuh's outnumbered force of approximately 2,000–3,000 cavalry outmaneuvered a combined Crusader-Fatimid army led by Amalric, employing feigned retreats and ambushes to inflict heavy casualties and relieve Alexandria.^[30] ^[19] These tactical successes demonstrated Shirkuh's prowess in mobile warfare against superior numbers. The third campaign (1168–1169) culminated in the conquest of Cairo and the effective subjugation of the Fatimid Caliphate. Entering Egypt in late 1168 with reinforcements, Shirkuh besieged and captured Alexandria from Crusader forces in May 1169, then executed Shawar and assumed the vizierate on 23 March 1169 after negotiating with Caliph al-Adid.^[31] His forces repelled a final Crusader assault, leveraging Egypt's internal divisions and Sunni discontent with Fatimid Shia rule to consolidate control without prolonged sieges. These operations minimized Zengid casualties while neutralizing threats from both Fatimid loyalists and Franks, showcasing Shirkuh's strategic restraint in avoiding overextension. Strategically, Shirkuh's conquests shifted Egypt from Fatimid Shia orbit to Sunni Abbasid alignment via Zengid proxy, denying Crusaders a vital economic base that could have funded further Levantine offensives. Egypt's Nile-fed wealth and manpower—estimated at tens of thousands of potential recruits—bolstered Nur ad-Din's jihad, enabling sustained pressure on Crusader states and preventing their consolidation of a Nile corridor to the Red Sea.^[32] This realignment eroded Fatimid legitimacy, paving the way for orthodox Islamic governance and Saladin's subsequent empire-building, as Shirkuh's prior campaigns had already integrated Egyptian resources into Syrian military logistics. Historical assessments, drawing from chroniclers like Ibn al-Athir, credit these efforts with altering the balance of power, though Shirkuh's death in March 1169 limited his personal oversight of long-term outcomes.^[19]

Role in Saladin's Ascendancy and Ayyubid Foundation

Shirkuh, Saladin's paternal uncle and military patron, initiated his nephew's rise by recruiting him for the expeditions into Egypt, where Saladin served as a subordinate commander and gained extensive experience in warfare, logistics, and governance under Shirkuh's direct oversight.^[30] This mentorship during the 1163–1164, 1166–1167, and decisive 1168–1169 campaigns honed Saladin's skills, as he participated in key engagements against Fatimid forces and Crusader interventions, earning recognition for his tactical acumen and reliability.^[33] By embedding Saladin within the Syrian contingent loyal to Nur ad-Din, Shirkuh positioned him as a trusted deputy, fostering the familial and military networks essential for future power consolidation. Upon securing victory in the third expedition, Shirkuh was appointed vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate on January 18, 1169, after executing the incumbent Shawar and compelling the young caliph al-Adid to submit.^[33] In this role, Shirkuh promptly integrated Saladin into high-level command, assigning him oversight of the Syrian troops—numbering around 5,000–10,000—and administrative duties that exposed him to Egypt's fiscal and palace intrigues. Shirkuh's brief tenure, marked by efforts to stabilize Sunni influence amid Fatimid Shi'a decay, directly bridged to Saladin's advancement when Shirkuh died suddenly on March 23, 1169, from complications of overindulgence in rich foods exacerbated by his obesity.^[34] Saladin's succession as vizier on March 26, 1169, inherited Shirkuh's authority over the military apparatus, enabling him to suppress internal revolts, neutralize Fatimid palace factions, and repel a Crusader assault on Damietta later that year. This inheritance of Shirkuh's gains—control of Egypt's 30,000-strong army and the Nile's annual tax revenues exceeding 5 million dinars—provided the platform for Saladin to erode Fatimid legitimacy.^[35] By 1171, Saladin had abolished the caliphate, installing orthodox Sunni rule and founding the Ayyubid dynasty, whose territorial and economic base in Egypt originated from Shirkuh's conquests that supplanted Fatimid autonomy with Zengid-backed forces.^[34] Shirkuh's strategic penetration of Egypt thus causally enabled the dynasty's emergence, as it delivered the resources and precedents Saladin leveraged to defy Nur ad-Din and unify Muslim polities against the Crusaders.

Evaluations in Historical Sources

Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, who served as Shirkuh's secretary during the Egyptian campaigns, depicts him in al-Fath al-Qussi fi al-Fath al-Mu'izzi as a decisive leader whose maneuvers outflanked Fatimid vizier Shawar and Crusader king Amalric I, crediting his persistence for the 1169 conquest of Cairo and restoration of Sunni orthodoxy against Shia rule.^[36] Imad ad-Din's account, shaped by his later Ayyubid patronage, highlights Shirkuh's tactical retreats and reinforcements from Syria, such as summoning 2,000 cavalry in 1167, but reflects pro-Zengid bias favoring Nur ad-Din's anti-Fatimid agenda over objective critique of Shirkuh's opportunistic alliances.^[23] Ibn al-Athir, in al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh, evaluates Shirkuh as a loyal executor of Nur ad-Din's directives, chronicling his three expeditions (1163–1164, 1166–1167, 1168–1169) as pivotal in neutralizing Egyptian support for Crusaders, with specific note of Shirkuh's 1169 appointment as vizier on February 18 after defeating Shawar at Alexandria.^[37] As a Mosul-based historian aligned with Zengid interests, Ibn al-Athir's portrayal underscores Shirkuh's military efficacy—evident in his evasion of Amalric's blockade via the Nile—but omits potential personal ambitions, prioritizing causal links to broader jihad against Franks over internal Zengid-Ayyubid tensions.^[38] Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad, Saladin's qadi and biographer in al-Nawadir al-Sultaniyya, frames Shirkuh as the strategic patron who elevated his nephew, describing the 1164 expedition as reconnaissance that exposed Egypt's vulnerabilities, leading to full conquest.^[30] This near-contemporary Sunni source, reliant on Ayyubid oral traditions, praises Shirkuh's integration of Kurdish and Turkish troops but subordinates his agency to divine favor and Nur ad-Din's oversight, a narrative device common in victors' histories that downplays Shirkuh's independent risks, such as his brief 1169 truce with Amalric.^[39] Latin chronicler William of Tyre, in Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum, assesses Shirkuh as "an able and energetic warrior, eager for glory and of wide experience in military matters" during the 1163 incursion, acknowledging his evasion of Frankish forces despite viewing the campaigns as threats to Jerusalem's alliances with Shawar.^[40] As an adversary source from the Kingdom of Jerusalem, William's grudging respect for Shirkuh's adaptability—such as allying with local emirs—contrasts with Arabic panegyrics by emphasizing strategic threats over piety, though both traditions converge on his role in shifting Egypt's balance against Crusaders by March 1169.^[41] Surviving Fatimid perspectives are sparse, likely suppressed post-conquest, limiting counter-narratives to incidental criticisms of Shirkuh's brutality in sieges like Bilbais in 1168.

References

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Nov 1, 2019 · The lecture will explore the impact of these three men on the Saladin legend, which transformed a minor Kurdish warlord into an emblem of chivalry, piety and ...
[37]
https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/edcoll/9789004280687/B9789004280687_005.pdf
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The Saladin Provocation - Norsk PEN
Sep 6, 2004 · Shirkuh carried the nickname “Lion”, and was a great military strategist. ... The influential Arab chronicler Ibn al-Athir (1160-1223) from Mosul ...
[39]
[PDF] Tracing Islamic Extremist Ideologies: The Historical Journey of Jihad ...
Therefore, this chapter will examine the primary sources of Salah al-Din's time who constructed a particular image of the ruler and his relationship to Islam in ...
[40]
William of Tyre: History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea
The intervention of Shirkuh produced the desired withdrawal of the Latin troops early in 1169." But Shirkuh had no intention of withdrawing his men this time.
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[PDF] William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Seas.
Still more recently, the same Nureddin, with the assidu- ous aid of Shirkuh, seized the ancient-and-wealthy-king- dom of Egypt as his own, in the manner ...