Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Scribe

A scribe was a professional writer and record-keeper in ancient civilizations, particularly in the Near East and Egypt, who specialized in copying, composing, and preserving written documents using scripts like cuneiform or hieroglyphs. These individuals, often from elite or hereditary families, were among the few literate members of society and held pivotal roles in administration, law, religion, and education, ensuring the transmission of knowledge across generations. In ancient , scribes trained rigorously in edubba (tablet houses) from a young age, mastering writing on clay tablets, , , and foreign languages to handle diverse tasks such as drafting legal contracts, recording trade transactions, managing temple inventories, and composing literary or religious texts. Their work was essential to the functioning of palaces, temples, and urban economies, with the profession often linked to the god , patron of writing, and scribes serving as diplomats, judges, physicians, or teachers in addition to their scribal duties. In , scribes occupied a similarly elevated status during periods like (c. 2700–2180 BCE), forming a privileged literate elite that comprised roughly 1% of the population and performed administrative functions including tax accounting, land measurement, architectural planning for religious structures, and transcribing sacred texts onto or temple walls. Trained in script and practical mathematics—as evidenced in documents like the (c. 1800–1600 BCE)—they supported the pharaoh's governance and the maintenance of Ma'at (cosmic order), often advancing to high offices such as viziers or priests, with their social importance reflected in elaborate tombs and titles like "overseer of scribes." Across these civilizations, scribes' expertise in writing systems and related skills not only facilitated bureaucratic efficiency but also preserved , from narratives to scientific treatises, underscoring their indispensable contribution to the development of complex societies.

Overview

Definition and Historical Role

A scribe in ancient and medieval societies was a specialized professional responsible for writing, , and preserving texts, employing advanced skills in scripts such as , hieroglyphs, or later alphabetic systems on materials like clay tablets or . This role demanded not only technical proficiency but also interpretive judgment to adapt and transmit information accurately across generations. Scribes fulfilled critical societal functions as elite administrators managing economic transactions, legal documents, and governmental records; as record-keepers chronicling historical events and daily affairs; as religious copyists reproducing sacred scriptures and liturgical works; and as educators training future scribes in and composition. In eras when literacy rates remained below 2% among the general population, scribes held a near-monopoly on written knowledge, bridging the gap between illiterate masses and ruling authorities while wielding significant influence in decision-making processes. The scribe profession originated around 3500–3000 BCE in early state formations like Sumerian Mesopotamia and , where writing systems first developed to support bureaucratic needs in , , and . As civilizations advanced, the role evolved from primarily administrative duties to scholarly preservation in religious and monastic settings during the medieval period, where scribes—often —ensured the survival of classical and theological texts amid widespread illiteracy. This progression elevated scribes to a privileged , typically drawn from elite families and afforded exemptions from manual labor due to their indispensable expertise. Training occurred through extended apprenticeships lasting several years, involving rote memorization, practical copying exercises, and vocational instruction tailored to regional scripts and administrative demands.

Tools and Materials

Scribes across ancient civilizations employed specialized writing implements tailored to their materials and scripts. In , styluses crafted from s, bone, or wood were used to press wedge-shaped impressions into soft clay tablets, forming the script. In , reed pens known as , fashioned by cutting and splitting the hollow end of a reed stem, served as the primary tool for inscribing hieroglyphs or script on or stone surfaces. Later periods, particularly from the early medieval era onward, saw the adoption of pens made from bird feathers, which provided greater flexibility for finer lines on . Inks for these tools were typically derived from natural sources to ensure adhesion and durability. Carbon-based inks, produced by mixing or lampblack with water and a binding agent like , were common in both Mesopotamian and scribal practices for their dark, stable pigmentation. Red inks, derived from minerals such as and mixed with , provided contrast for headings and annotations, though black remained predominant for administrative and literary texts. Writing surfaces varied by region and availability, each requiring specific preparation for usability. Clay tablets in the ancient Near East were formed from moist river clay, often left unbaked for temporary records or sun-dried for longevity, with some later fired in kilns to enhance permanence against environmental damage. Papyrus rolls, central to Egyptian scribal work, were made by slicing thin strips from the pith of Nile reeds, layering and gluing them crosswise into sheets, then pressing and drying them flat. Parchment, emerging in the Mediterranean around the 2nd century BCE, involved treating animal skins—usually from sheep, goats, or calves—through soaking in lime solution to loosen hair, followed by scraping flesh and stretching on frames to create a smooth, durable sheet. In ancient China, silk fabric served as a luxurious alternative, woven from silkworm cocoons and occasionally inked for elite texts, though its cost limited widespread use. Scribal techniques reflected the medium's constraints and cultural needs, emphasizing precision and efficiency. Cuneiform involved angled thrusts of the stylus into wet clay to produce triangular wedges, arranged in rows to denote syllables or logograms. Hieroglyphs were executed through carving into stone with chisels for monumental inscriptions or painting with brushes on plaster walls and papyrus for more fluid applications. Alphabetic scripting, originating with the Phoenicians around 1200 BCE and adapted by the Greeks, utilized linear strokes of a pen to form consonant-vowel signs on papyrus or wax tablets, simplifying representation compared to earlier syllabaries. Preparation processes further refined these surfaces: papyrus sheets were often sized with starch paste to reduce absorbency and prevent ink bleeding, while clay tablets could be smoothed or waxed for erasable practice writing. Preservation methods ensured the longevity of scribal records in institutional settings. Mesopotamian tablets were stored in libraries like those at , often encased in clay envelopes—outer layers imprinted with summaries or seals to protect against tampering or damage. Early binding concepts transitioned from rolled scrolls, secured with ties or stored in jars, to the format by the 1st century CE, where folded sheets of or were stitched along one edge and bound between wooden covers for easier access and durability.

Ancient Near East

Mesopotamia

The scribal profession originated in ancient around 3200 BCE in the southern city of , where emerged as the world's first , initially used for accounting and economic records. This script developed from earlier clay token systems that tracked commodities like and , evolving into impressed wedge-shaped signs on clay tablets to denote quantities and types of goods in and administrations. By the late , these tablets documented complex transactions, marking the transition from pre-literate reckoning to systematic writing. Scribes, referred to as dub-sar in Sumerian (meaning "tablet writer"), held essential administrative roles in Sumer and later Akkad, overseeing temple economies by recording inventories, labor allocations, and trade activities that sustained urban centers. They also documented legal codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi around 1750 BCE, which was inscribed on a diorite stele by royal scribes to codify laws on justice, commerce, and social order. Literary works like the Epic of Gilgamesh were similarly preserved through scribal copying on tablets, blending myth and heroism in Akkadian and Babylonian versions. As high officials, scribes served under rulers like Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334–2279 BCE), who expanded the empire and relied on them for bureaucratic control, including land surveys and diplomatic correspondence. Training for scribes took place in edubba ("house of tablets") schools, primarily for boys from elite families, where they memorized over 600 signs through repetitive copying of model texts on clay tablets. The emphasized practical skills like sign recognition and composition, progressing from simple numerical notations to complex narratives, ensuring scribes could maintain the administrative and cultural records of Mesopotamian society.

Ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, scribes, known as sesh in the Egyptian language, formed a vital class of literate professionals who underpinned the pharaonic administration and cultural preservation along the . Emerging during the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100–2686 BCE), these individuals managed the complex essential for a centralized state, recording agricultural yields, labor allocations, and fiscal obligations that sustained the kingdom's economy and monumental projects. Their work extended to religious and intellectual domains, ensuring the continuity of rituals and knowledge across dynasties. The Egyptian writing systems developed by scribes included hieroglyphs, a formal pictorial script used primarily for sacred inscriptions on monuments and tombs; hieratic, a cursive derivative for administrative and literary documents; and demotic, a later simplified form emerging around 650 BCE for everyday legal and business purposes. Hieroglyphs, revered as divine and comprising over 700 distinct signs combining ideographic, logographic, and phonetic elements, were reserved for monumental and ritual contexts, while hieratic allowed for faster transcription on papyrus. Demotic further streamlined writing for the Late Period (c. 664–332 BCE) onward, reflecting scribes' adaptation to practical needs in governance and commerce. Scribes played a central role in the Nile Valley bureaucracy, documenting taxes on grain and livestock to fund state initiatives, as seen in records from (c. 2686–2181 BCE). They oversaw for pyramid constructions, such as those under Pharaoh Khufu at (c. 2580 BCE), tallying worker rations and material transports in notations on ostraca and papyri. In medical and scholarly spheres, scribes compiled treatises like the (c. 1550 BCE), a scroll detailing over 700 remedies and anatomical observations, which preserved empirical knowledge for healers and administrators. Training for scribes occurred in temple-based institutions called the House of Life (Per ), multifunctional centers from the (c. 2050–1710 BCE) where novices, typically boys from elite families, memorized scripts, , and over years of rigorous study. These schools emphasized copying sacred texts and practical exercises, producing professionals whose status was symbolized in tomb , such as depictions of scribes with palettes—rectangular boards holding wells and brushes—portrayed in serene, seated poses to invoke eternal wisdom. Key artifacts underscore the scribes' legacy, including the Rosetta Stone (196 BCE), a decree inscribed in hieroglyphs, demotic, and Greek that enabled the 19th-century decipherment of Egyptian scripts by scholars like , unlocking millennia of records. Similarly, scrolls, customized or hieroglyphic papyri produced by scribes for elite burials from the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), contained spells and vignettes to guide the deceased through the , exemplifying the fusion of administrative skill and religious devotion.

Classical Mediterranean

Ancient Greece

In ancient Greece, the role of scribes, known as grammateis, emerged prominently following the adoption of the Phoenician alphabet around 800 BCE, which the Greeks adapted into their own script by adding vowels and modifying forms to suit their language. This innovation facilitated the transition from earlier syllabic systems like Linear B to a more efficient alphabetic writing, evolving through regional variants into the classical Greek forms used in city-states such as Athens and Sparta. Scribes in these Hellenic centers, often serving as secretaries in public administration, played a crucial role in recording the cultural and political life of democratic societies. The grammateis were essential in preserving literary works rooted in oral traditions, including the copying of Homer's Iliad, composed around the 8th century BCE and initially transmitted orally before being committed to writing. In Athens, they documented administrative records for the boule (council), ensuring the accountability of democratic processes through inscribed decrees and proceedings on stone or papyrus. Similarly, in Sparta, scribes maintained records of military and civic matters, though with less emphasis on public inscriptions compared to Athens. Their work extended to theater, where they transcribed scripts for comedic plays by Aristophanes, such as The Clouds (423 BCE), aiding in rehearsals and archival preservation amid the oral performance culture of the Dionysian festivals. Training for grammateis typically occurred through informal apprenticeships, where young learners, often from modest backgrounds, practiced copying texts under the guidance of established scribes in workshops or administrative offices. This hands-on approach emphasized mastery of the script, stylus techniques, and material preparation, without formalized schools until later Hellenistic influences. The profoundly shaped scribal practices, as many texts began as recited compositions before transcription, blending memory and writing in early Greek literacy. A pivotal development was the establishment of major libraries that employed scribes for scholarly compilation. The , founded around 283 BCE under , housed approximately 400,000 scrolls and relied on grammateis to copy and catalog works, fostering Hellenistic learning. Similarly, Aristotle's Lyceum, established in circa 335 BCE, featured systematic note-taking by scribes and students, compiling research on , , and into foundational texts that influenced subsequent thought.

Ancient Rome

In ancient Rome, scribes known as scribae served as essential public officials and clerks employed by the state, primarily tasked with financial and legal administration, including the preparation of public accounts and the transcription of laws. These professionals operated within the imperial bureaucracy, assisting magistrates in recording Senate proceedings and managing official documentation during the Republic and Empire periods. Roman scribes utilized distinct scripts suited to their purposes: capitalis quadrata, a formal square capital style, for monumental inscriptions since the early imperial era, while cursive scripts—old Roman cursive from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE and new Roman cursive—enabled faster writing for everyday tasks. Wax tablets, often inscribed with a stylus, were commonly employed for provisional notes and drafts before transfer to more permanent media like papyrus. Scribae played critical roles in legal, military, and literary spheres, reflecting the expansive demands of Roman governance. In legal contexts, they contributed to records such as the of 450 BCE, foundational to , and later served as public notaries called tabelliones, who authenticated contracts and private documents under imperial oversight. Militarily, scribes under leaders like (100–44 BCE) transcribed dispatches and campaigns, as seen in the dictation of Caesar's , where scribae recorded events in the third person to maintain an objective tone. For literature, scribes copied works like Virgil's (completed posthumously in 19 BCE), using legible to produce high-quality manuscripts for elite circulation, thereby preserving Roman . Training for scribae occurred through familial apprenticeships and professional guilds, such as the collegium scribarum, which provided structured education in , legal terminology, and administrative procedures during the imperial period. Key events shaped scribal practices: the 48 BCE fire at the during Caesar's destroyed thousands of scrolls, hindering Roman access to texts and compelling emperors to dispatch scribes for copying surviving works to bolster libraries. Around the CE, the invention of the —evolving from wax tablet bindings into folded or sheets sewn together—revolutionized scribal production, allowing easier reference and portability over traditional s.

Ancient Asia

China

The scribal tradition in ancient China originated with the oracle bone script during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE), where inscriptions on animal bones and turtle shells served as the earliest known form of systematic Chinese writing, primarily for divination purposes around 1200 BCE. This logographic system, consisting of pictographic and ideographic characters, marked the foundational development of hanzi (Chinese characters) and was incised by specialized diviners or scribes using knives on prepared surfaces. Over centuries, the script evolved through bronze inscriptions in the (1046–256 BCE) and transitioned to the (xiaozhuan) under the (221–206 BCE), which unified and standardized the to facilitate imperial administration. The chancellor played a pivotal role in this standardization around 221 BCE, compiling characters into the Pian dictionary and promoting a uniform style that emphasized rounded, symmetrical strokes for clarity in official documents. This reform replaced diverse regional variants with a single national script, enabling efficient bureaucratic communication across the empire. Scribes, known as shushi, were essential to the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) bureaucracy, meticulously recording historical annals, Confucian classics, and administrative data such as population censuses that tracked millions of households for taxation and military purposes. A prominent example is Sima Qian's Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), completed around 100 BCE, which scribes like him compiled from diverse sources to chronicle over two millennia of Chinese history in a narrative style blending annals, biographies, and treatises. Shushi also copied and preserved the Five Classics of Confucianism—such as the Analects and the Book of Changes—ensuring their transmission as the ideological backbone of governance and education. Training for shushi occurred at the Imperial Academy (Taixue), established in 124 BCE during the as the premier institution for scholarly education, where students memorized classics, practiced , and prepared for roles through rigorous textual study. Scribes employed the ""—brush, , (or earlier substitutes), and —but in ancient times relied on hair brushes with soot-based applied to bamboo slips or silk scrolls bound with cords for durability and portability. A defining event in scribal history was the 213 BCE burning of books ordered by , which destroyed vast collections of non-Legalist texts, including histories and Confucian works, to consolidate ideological control and eliminate rival philosophies, though some copies survived in hidden caches. This purge, advised by , contrasted with the later revival of classical learning, underscoring scribes' resilience in reconstructing and safeguarding cultural knowledge amid political upheaval. By the time of the imperial examinations' formalization in the (618–907 CE), scribal skills had evolved into a merit-based pathway for bureaucratic entry, perpetuating the tradition of character-based administration.

South Asia

In ancient South Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent from Vedic times through the Gupta Empire (c. 1500 BCE–550 CE), scribes known as lekhakas played a pivotal role in early historic court and society (c. 200 BCE–200 CE), handling administrative and legal documentation as part of bureaucratic practices. These professionals supported court proceedings and routine record-keeping, as described in texts like Kautilya's Arthashastra, bridging administrative needs in a society transitioning toward written records. Their work focused on official documents, with roles evolving into hereditary scribal groups like the kayasthas in later periods. The Brahmi script, emerging around 300 BCE during the Mauryan Empire, served as the foundational writing system for scribes in South Asia, used initially for inscriptions in Prakrit and later for Sanskrit. It evolved into regional variants, culminating in the Devanagari script by around 800 CE, characterized by its horizontal line (shirorekha) and syllabic structure for representing consonants and vowels. Scribes employed this script on durable palm-leaf manuscripts, prepared by drying and polishing leaves from the talipot or palmyra palm, which were incised with a stylus and inked for visibility; this medium, prevalent from the 5th century BCE, allowed texts to endure for centuries in the tropical climate. Lekhakas were essential in administrative contexts, such as drafting and coordinating the engraving of Emperor Ashoka's edicts (268–232 BCE), providing textual copies to engravers for inscription on rocks and pillars across the empire, as seen in southern sites like Brahmagiri where scribe Capada reproduced edicts multiple times for accuracy. In court settings, these scribes handled documentation under royal patronage. Preservation of sacred texts like the Rigveda—composed orally around 1500 BCE but likely committed to writing by the Gupta period (c. 320–550 CE)—and the Mahabharata, an epic spanning c. 400 BCE–400 CE, was more commonly associated with monastic scribes in Buddhist and Jain traditions, who copied works onto palm leaves after oral recitations. Detailed records of training for lekhakas are scarce, but as court professionals, they likely underwent apprenticeships emphasizing precision in script and administrative literacy. Notable examples include the inscriptions at Ajanta Caves (c. 2nd century BCE onward), where royal scribes like those under the Vakataka dynasty (5th century CE) recorded eulogies and dedications in Brahmi-derived scripts, such as the Cave XVI inscription praising King Harishena's patronage of Buddhist viharas. Buddhism significantly influenced script dissemination, promoting writing for sutras in Prakrit and Pali on palm leaves from the 1st century CE, which facilitated the spread of Brahmi variants across South Asia and beyond through monastic networks.

East Asian Traditions

Japan

The adoption of Chinese characters, or kanji, into Japan around the 5th century CE marked the origins of organized scribal practices, enabling the transcription of administrative, literary, and religious texts despite the phonetic differences between Chinese and Japanese. Initially used for official records and Buddhist scriptures, kanji required adaptations to suit the Japanese language. By the 9th century, native syllabaries emerged: hiragana, derived from cursive kanji and primarily used by court women for personal writing, and katakana, developed from abbreviated kanji parts for scholarly annotations and phonetic notation. These innovations expanded scribal capabilities, allowing more fluid expression of Japanese grammar and native words. During the Heian period (794–1185 CE), scribes were essential to cultural preservation, copying seminal works like The Tale of Genji (c. 1000 CE) by Murasaki Shikibu through labor-intensive manuscript production that ensured the novel's survival and dissemination among the aristocracy. They also maintained imperial records, such as edicts and chronicles, in official scriptoria to support court governance and historical documentation. Scribal roles extended to religious texts, where copying Buddhist sutras served as a ritual act of devotion, often performed in purity-ritualized settings to invoke spiritual merit, with scribes producing ornate volumes for temples and lay patrons. Scribal training took place in court academies and through literati households, where apprentices mastered , , and classical composition under tutors versed in learning. Women scribes were prominent in the Heian court, leveraging hiragana for intimate literary output; , a , exemplified this by authoring The Tale of Genji, her diary, and poetry collections, which were hand-copied and circulated privately among elite women. A enduring scribal tradition is the goshuincho, specialized notebooks for collecting vermilion-stamped calligraphy from shrines and temples, originating in the (710–794 CE) as proofs of sutra copying and devotional offerings. This practice persists, with priests hand-brushing unique entries to record pilgrimages. The advent of in the 8th century, first applied to mass-produce Buddhist s in the , augmented scribal efforts by facilitating wider text distribution while handwritten copies retained ritual and artistic value.

Korea

In Korea, the scribal tradition initially relied on , the adoption of , which were used for official, literary, and administrative purposes from ancient times through the dynasty (918–1392 CE) and into the early dynasty (1392–1910 CE). This logographic system required extensive training and limited literacy to the elite class, as its complexity made it inaccessible to commoners. In 1443 CE, King Sejong the Great of the dynasty commissioned the creation of , a unique featural designed to phonetically represent the and promote widespread literacy among all social classes, including women and peasants. The script was officially promulgated in 1446 CE through the document ("The Proper Sounds for the Education of the People"), which explained its 28 letters (later reduced to 24) based on the shapes of speech organs, emphasizing ease of learning within a short time. Scribes, often referred to as copyists or secretaries in royal and scholarly contexts, played a crucial role in preserving and disseminating knowledge during the Joseon era. They meticulously copied historical texts such as the Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms, compiled in 1145 CE during the Goryeo period but recopied extensively in Joseon for administrative and educational use), which chronicled Korea's early kingdoms using Hanja. In the Joseon bureaucracy, scribes maintained vast administrative records, including the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty (Sillok), official annals compiled daily by the royal secretariat (Seungjeongwon) to document court events, policies, and even mundane royal mishaps, ensuring historical accountability even after a king's death. Hangul enabled scribes to transcribe vernacular materials, such as shamanistic texts including oral myths, chants, and rituals like the story of Princess Bari, which were preserved in folk manuscripts to capture spiritual and cultural traditions otherwise lost to oral transmission. Training for scribes occurred in specialized institutions, including the royal Jiphyeonjeon (Hall of Worthies), established by King Sejong in 1420 CE as a scriptorium where scholars developed Hangul and copied texts, and later in seowon, private Neo-Confucian academies that prepared yangban for civil service exams involving scribal proficiency in Hanja and, selectively, Hangul. These academies emphasized moral and classical education, fostering scribes who served in government offices. Despite its innovative design, Hangul faced suppression by the yangban elite, who viewed it as vulgar ("eonmun") and restricted its use to unofficial writings, leading to its limited adoption until the late 19th century revival during movements for national identity and modernization, when it became central to Korean literature and administration.

Abrahamic Religions

Judaism

In Jewish tradition, scribes, known as soferim, played a pivotal role in preserving and interpreting sacred texts from biblical times onward. Emerging prominently after the Babylonian Exile in the 5th century BCE, the soferim were scholars who not only copied the Hebrew scriptures but also served as interpreters and teachers of the , ensuring its transmission amid cultural disruptions. They contributed to the compilation of the Tanakh by organizing oral traditions and earlier writings into a cohesive canon, emphasizing fidelity to the divine word. This scribal activity marked a shift from prophetic authorship to systematic preservation, laying the foundation for . A central figure in this tradition was Ezra the Scribe, a priest and scholar who led the return of Jews from Babylonian captivity around 458 BCE. Ezra is credited with standardizing the Hebrew script, transitioning from the older Aramaic-influenced forms to a square script that became the basis for future Torah scrolls, thereby unifying textual practices across Jewish communities. His efforts, as described in the Book of Ezra, included public readings and expositions of the Torah to revive religious observance, positioning him as a bridge between the prophetic era and the post-exilic period. Ezra's work exemplified the scribe's dual role as custodian and educator, influencing the development of synagogue-based study. The soferim adhered to rigorous practices for copying Torah scrolls to prevent errors and maintain sanctity. These included writing exactly 42 lines per column on columns measuring about 50 cm high, using only black made from specific ingredients on kosher derived from ritually clean animal hides, such as those of calves or kids. Scribes were required to count every letter—totaling 304,805 in the —to verify accuracy, and any mistake necessitated restarting the column or scroll. These rules, codified in later rabbinic texts like Tractate Soferim, underscored the belief that the Torah's physical form was as sacred as its content, with scribes undergoing before work. Over time, the role of scribes evolved from the prophetic and early rabbinic eras into the Masoretic tradition by the 6th to 10th centuries CE. Early examples of this scribal precision appear in the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, where multiple copies of biblical texts show meticulous handwriting and corrections by scribes, reflecting diverse yet careful textual variants. The , successors to the soferim, further refined this by adding vowel points, accents, and marginal notes (masorah) to standardize pronunciation and prevent alterations, culminating in the authoritative that forms the basis of modern Hebrew Bibles. This evolution ensured the Tanakh's integrity across generations, adapting to challenges while preserving interpretive depth.

Christianity

In the early Christian era, scribes played a pivotal role in the dissemination of the faith by meticulously copying the Gospels and other New Testament texts in Greek, beginning around the 1st century CE. These handwritten manuscripts, often produced on papyrus, formed the foundation of Christian scripture transmission, with the earliest surviving fragments, such as the Rylands Papyrus P52 containing portions of the Gospel of John, dated to circa 125–150 CE. Scribes operated in informal settings, drawing on classical Greek scribal traditions influenced by Roman practices of textual reproduction. By the 4th century, this effort culminated in comprehensive codices like the Codex Sinaiticus, produced circa 330–360 CE at a scriptorium likely in Egypt or Caesarea, which contains the oldest complete New Testament alongside the Septuagint Old Testament in Greek. This manuscript, written in uncial script by multiple scribes and featuring extensive corrections, exemplifies the rigorous copying processes that preserved core Christian doctrines during the patristic period. Early Christian scribes contributed to the faith's spread through their work in and nascent communities, where they inscribed epitaphs, prayers, and doctrinal symbols on burial slabs and walls, reflecting liturgical and theological developments from the onward. In Roman like those of St. Callistus, scribes under figures such as (366–384 CE) employed elegant scripts like the Damasine letters for memorials invoking resurrection and eternal peace, serving as both devotional aids and historical records. Within early churches, scribes facilitated translations, most notably Jerome's , completed circa 405 CE, which rendered the Bible into Latin from Greek and Hebrew sources to standardize texts amid proliferating versions marred by scribal errors. Jerome, supported by clerical scribes, produced this authoritative edition over 23 years, influencing Western and doctrine for centuries. Scribal practices evolved to address the demands of textual fidelity, including the gradual development of minuscule script in Greek Christian manuscripts from the 6th century, which transitioned from uncial forms for more efficient copying and readability in continuous scriptio continua. However, such efforts also introduced variants, as seen in the Johannine Comma (1 John 5:7–8), a Trinitarian interpolation absent from early Greek witnesses like Codex Sinaiticus and appearing only in some later Latin manuscripts from the 8th century onward, likely originating as a marginal gloss before entering the Vulgate tradition. A key ecclesiastical event underscoring scribal importance was the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, where notaries and scribes recorded debates and formulated the Nicene Creed, addressing Arian controversies and establishing orthodox Trinitarian language that scribes subsequently copied into conciliar documents and liturgical texts. These records, preserved through scribal labor, shaped creedal affirmations across early Christian communities.

Islam

In the early Islamic period, the role of scribes became pivotal during the standardization of the Quran under Caliph Uthman ibn Affan around 650 CE. Uthman commissioned a committee led by Zayd ibn Thabit to compile an official codex, employing skilled scribes to transcribe the text from various regional dialects into a unified Arabic form using the angular Kufic script, which was angular and suited for early parchment materials. This effort aimed to resolve discrepancies in recitation and writing among Muslim communities expanding beyond Arabia, resulting in multiple copies distributed to major cities like Medina, Mecca, Kufa, and Damascus. Scribes in Islamic society held esteemed positions in both religious and administrative spheres. In educational settings, kuttab schools served as foundational institutions where students learned basic literacy by copying Quranic verses, extending to the reproduction of hadith collections and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) texts by professional copyists to preserve oral traditions in written form. Administratively, under the Abbasid Caliphate from around 750 CE, scribes staffed the diwans—bureaucratic offices handling finance, military records, taxation, and correspondence—often Persian or Arab scholars who managed the empire's vast paperwork using systematic ledgers. These roles underscored the scribe's status as a guardian of knowledge, blending piety with governance. Islamic scribal practices emphasized calligraphy as a sacred art, adhering to aniconic principles that prohibited images in religious manuscripts to maintain focus on the divine word. Styles like naskh, a cursive and legible script developed in the 10th century for everyday readability, and thuluth, an elegant monumental form used for Quranic headings and architectural inscriptions, evolved to enhance the aesthetic and spiritual impact of texts without figurative decoration. Later, waqf endowments—pious foundations—supported the copying and illumination of Qurans and other works, ensuring their preservation and distribution to mosques and libraries across the Islamic world. Key advancements bolstered scribal productivity in the 8th and 9th centuries. The introduction of paper to the Islamic world around 751 CE, brought by Chinese papermakers captured during the Battle of Talas against the Tang Dynasty, revolutionized manuscript production by replacing costly parchment and papyrus with a cheaper, abundant medium that facilitated mass copying. In Baghdad's House of Wisdom, established in the early 9th century under Caliph al-Ma'mun, teams of scribes and translators rendered Greek philosophical and scientific works—such as those of Aristotle and Ptolemy—into Arabic, creating a synthesis of knowledge that influenced global intellectual history.

Medieval Europe

Monastic Scribes

In medieval Christian monasteries, particularly those following the Benedictine tradition, scribes played a central role in the production and preservation of manuscripts within dedicated scriptoria—specialized rooms designed for writing and illumination. The Abbey of Monte Cassino, founded by St. Benedict in 529 CE in Campania, Italy, exemplifies early Benedictine organization, where the scriptorium became a hub for copying texts as an act of manual labor and spiritual discipline. The Rule of St. Benedict, formulated around 547 CE, mandated such activities in Chapter 48, "On Daily Manual Labor," requiring monks to engage in reading and copying during designated hours to balance prayer with productive work, thereby ensuring the monastery's intellectual and spiritual sustenance. Monastic scribes produced illuminated manuscripts, richly decorated volumes that combined text with intricate artwork to glorify religious narratives. A prime example is the , created around 800 CE by Irish monks, likely in the of or Kells, featuring vibrant illustrations of the four Gospels in Latin on folios. Under Charlemagne's reign (768–814 CE), the script was revived and standardized in monastic scriptoria, such as those at Corbie Abbey, to improve readability and uniformity; this clear, rounded lowercase script facilitated the widespread dissemination of texts across . Daily life in the scriptorium was marked by rigorous discipline, including periods of enforced silence to foster contemplation, as prescribed by the Rule of St. Benedict, which urged monks to "diligently cultivate silence at all times" during work to avoid idle talk. Scribes typically labored for at least six hours daily, often by candlelight, enduring physical strain while copying texts; upon completion, they added colophons—personal notes at the manuscript's end—recording dates, labor details, or pleas for prayers, such as expressions of exhaustion or invocations for relief. Through their efforts, monastic scribes preserved classical texts during the early medieval period often termed the Dark Ages, when secular learning declined amid invasions and instability; monasteries like those and the copied works by authors such as and Pliny, ensuring their survival for later scholars. Cluny Abbey, a prominent 10th-century Benedictine center in , exemplified high output, with its producing numerous illuminated manuscripts under abbots like (927–942 ), contributing to the enrichment of medieval Christian libraries through both original copying and acquisitions.

Female Scribes

In medieval Europe, female scribes primarily operated within convents, where nuns in scriptoria copied and illuminated manuscripts as part of their devotional duties. These women, often educated in monastic schools, produced works for personal use, communal worship, and patronage, contributing to the intellectual life of religious communities despite societal restrictions on female literacy. For instance, at the Rupertsberg convent around 1150 CE, Hildegard of Bingen supervised a scriptorium staffed by nuns who transcribed her visionary texts, including Scivias, under the oversight of monk scribes like Volmar, resulting in comprehensive codices such as the Riesencodex. Laywomen from noble backgrounds also engaged in scribal work, leveraging private education to author and copy texts. Christine de Pizan (c. 1364–1430 CE), an Italian-born Parisian widow, became Europe's first known professional female writer, producing over 40 manuscripts on topics like women's virtue and governance, often dictating to or collaborating with scribes in her home workshop. Female scribes focused on copying devotional and liturgical texts, such as psalters, homilies, and saints' lives, which reinforced spiritual practices within convents. In some cases, their work integrated with other crafts; nuns embroidered inscriptions or decorative scripts onto vestments and altar cloths, using needlework as an extension of scribal expression to convey religious narratives. Challenges abounded due to limited access to formal education outside monastic settings, where women's literacy was often confined to Latin basics for prayer, and resources like parchment were scarce in smaller houses. Post-12th century, gender barriers intensified with the rise of scholasticism and clerical reforms, which increasingly restricted women from public intellectual roles and scriptoria, pushing female copying into more isolated convent environments. Notable examples include Hroswitha of Gandersheim (c. 935–973 CE), a at the Gandersheim who composed six Latin dramas— the first known since —modeling Christian virtues through plays like , which she likely copied and preserved in manuscript form for monastic performance. In pre-1066 Anglo-Saxon England, women scribes at double monasteries like HartgIsland and produced illuminated texts, including gospel books and charters, with evidence of their hands in over a dozen surviving manuscripts, reflecting an era of relatively inclusive before the . The survival of female-authored or copied manuscripts remains limited, with only about 1.1% of the estimated 10 million produced between 400 and 1500 securely attributed to women, equating to over ,000 volumes, many through colophons or paleographic . Pioneering like Diemut of Wessobrunn (d. c. 1110 ) copied at least 45 books, including illuminated gospels, though only 14 survive today, underscoring the fragility of these artifacts amid dissolutions and wars. Such works highlight women's overlooked contributions to preserving medieval knowledge, often against institutional odds.

Secular Scribes

In medieval European towns, secular scribes served as essential administrative professionals, distinct from their monastic counterparts, by managing civic and legal records in urban settings. Town clerks, for instance, were responsible for documenting guild activities, market regulations, and municipal proceedings, ensuring the continuity of local governance. In , the , established around the mid-12th century, housed such clerks who compiled records like the city's Letter Books and Journals, safeguarding legal precedents and civic rights from the . These roles extended to royal administrations, particularly in the of the Plantagenet dynasty, where scribes drafted and authenticated the majority of charters for the king, with approximately two-thirds produced by chancery scribes and about 26% of surviving charters being grants to lay beneficiaries. Secular scribes' practices emphasized legal authentication and adaptation to evolving linguistic norms. Notarial acts, performed by these professionals, involved recording contracts, wills, and agreements, often sealed with wax impressions from personal matrices to verify authenticity and prevent forgery, as served as proxies for signatures in an era of limited . Following the of 1066, the rise of vernacular languages in administration was evident, with Norman French becoming the dominant tongue in English royal and urban courts, influencing scribal output in legal proceedings and charters for over two centuries. This linguistic shift facilitated broader access to documentation beyond Latin, though scribes maintained formulaic structures in their work. Training for secular scribes typically occurred through urban apprenticeships rather than ecclesiastical schools, with young men learning script, legal phrasing, and record-keeping under established notaries or clerks in city workshops. These apprenticeships, often lasting several years, prepared them for independent practice, where they charged fees for services such as drafting deeds or authenticating acts, with costs varying by document complexity and location. A landmark example of their output is the of 1215, a scribal product where multiple copies were produced by local cathedral and chancery scribes, including one unidentified scribe at , to disseminate the charter's terms across . The (1347–1351) profoundly disrupted the scribal labor pool, creating shortages that elevated wages for surviving professionals and spurred innovations in manuscript production to meet demand. Urban centers like saw artisan scribes benefit from post-plague economic shifts, with higher per-capita earnings enabling collaborative workshops, though this also raised overall costs for book and record creation.

Notable Scribes

Ancient and Classical Figures

(c. 2285–2250 BCE), daughter of and high priestess of the moon god at , is recognized as the earliest known named author and poet-scribe in history. Serving in this role during the Old Akkadian period (ca. 2350–2200 BCE), she composed a collection of 42 hymns known as the Temple Hymns, which she signed with her name, marking a pioneering act of authorship in literature. These works, inscribed on clay tablets, praised Sumerian temples and deities, preserving religious and architectural knowledge while demonstrating her skill in poetic composition and possibly early geometric descriptions related to temple measurements. Her contributions extended to other poems like Ninmesarra and Inninmehusa, which blended personal voice with devotional themes, influencing Mesopotamian literary traditions. In , (c. 2650 BCE) exemplified the multifaceted role of a scribe during the Third Dynasty, serving as chancellor, high priest, architect, and physician under Pharaoh Djoser. Renowned for designing the Step Pyramid of —the first large-scale stone monument and precursor to later pyramids—'s scribal duties involved recording administrative, medical, and architectural knowledge on and stone. His titles, such as "chief of sculptors" and "overseer of all works of the king," underscore his oversight of inscription and documentation in monumental projects. Over centuries, was deified as a god of wisdom, medicine, and scribes, with temples dedicated to him by the Late Period, reflecting his enduring legacy in preserving Egyptian intellectual heritage. In the Hellenistic world, (c. 325–260 BCE) served as the first chief librarian of the under , where he applied scribal expertise to and organization. Appointed around 285–270 BCE, edited the Homeric epics, producing the library's first standardized edition (ekdosis) by collating manuscripts, marking suspect lines with obeli, and compiling commentaries to resolve variants. His work established systematic cataloging and classification methods for the library's growing collection, drawing on Aristotelian traditions to preserve and authenticate Greek literary heritage. As a scholar-scribe, 's efforts laid foundational practices for Alexandrian , influencing successors like Aristarchus in maintaining textual integrity. Marcus Tullius Tiro (c. 103–4 BCE), a freedman and personal secretary to the Roman orator Cicero, innovated shorthand as a scribe to enhance note-taking during speeches and correspondence. Developing the Tironian notes (notae Tironianae) in the 1st century BCE, Tiro created a system of over 4,000 symbols and abbreviations for Latin, allowing rapid transcription of Cicero's dictations and legal proceedings. This method, which included symbols for common words like prepositions and conjunctions, was widely adopted in Roman administration and later by medieval European scribes for copying manuscripts. Tiro's contributions preserved Cicero's vast output, including letters and orations, while streamlining bureaucratic record-keeping in the late Roman Republic. In ancient China, Sima Qian (c. 145–86 BCE) held the position of Grand Scribe (Taishigong) under Emperor Wu of Han, embodying the historian-scribe's role in compiling official annals and preserving dynastic knowledge. Author of the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), a monumental 130-chapter work covering over 2,500 years of Chinese history from legendary times to the Han dynasty, Sima Qian integrated biographical, chronological, and thematic narratives drawn from archival records, oral traditions, and travels. Despite personal hardships, including castration as punishment, he completed the Shiji to fulfill his father's legacy, establishing a model for historiography that emphasized moral lessons and factual verification. His scribal diligence in editing and synthesizing sources influenced subsequent Chinese historical writing, such as the Hanshu.

Medieval and Religious Figures

In the medieval period, scribes played a pivotal role in preserving and disseminating religious texts across Christian, Islamic, and Jewish traditions, often working within monastic or scholarly environments. Among the most renowned Christian figures was Eadfrith, Bishop of , who is traditionally credited with producing the around 698–721 CE as a tribute to Saint Cuthbert. This illuminated manuscript, featuring intricate and Latin text, exemplifies the fusion of scribal skill with devotional artistry in Anglo-Saxon , ensuring the survival of Gospel narratives during a time of cultural transition. Stephen Harding, the third abbot of Cîteaux from 1109 to 1133, was both a monastic reformer and an accomplished scribe whose work advanced Cistercian scholarship. Under his leadership, the Bible of (also known as the Cîteaux Bible) was created between 1109 and 1111, a multi-volume edition noted for its , innovative illustrations, and emphasis on textual accuracy, which influenced the order's emphasis on manual labor including copying sacred works. This Bible, housed in , represented a high point in Burgundian monastic production, blending simplicity with scholarly rigor in line with Cistercian ideals. Female religious scribes also left indelible marks, as seen with Guda, a 12th-century German nun whose self-portrait appears in the initial "D" of a homiliary (a collection of sermons) she copied and illuminated around 1160. In this rare signed work, now in Frankfurt, Guda depicts herself humbly kneeling in prayer, inscribing "Guda peccatrix femina scripsit et depinxit" (Guda, a sinful woman, wrote and painted this), highlighting women's contributions to liturgical texts amid patriarchal constraints. Her manuscript, focused on homilies for ecclesiastical use, underscores the devotional labor of nuns in scriptoria. In the Islamic world, Yaqut al-Musta'simi (d. 1298) stands out as a master calligrapher and scribe serving the Abbasid court in Baghdad. As secretary to the last caliph, al-Musta'sim, he refined the naskh and muhaqqaq scripts, producing Qur'ans and literary texts that set standards for Islamic calligraphy during the late medieval era. Surviving folios attributed to him, such as parts of a 30-volume Qur'an, demonstrate his oblique pen technique and proportional harmony, preserving religious texts amid the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258. These figures, through their meticulous and , not only safeguarded religious but also elevated scribal to an art form integral to medieval and learning.

References

  1. [1]
    (PDF) Scribes, ancient Near East - ResearchGate
    Jun 30, 2021 · Many scribes served on the administrative staffs of temples and palaces, or as diplomats, royal secretaries, translators, merchants, businessmen ...
  2. [2]
    The Scribal Tablet-House in Ancient Mesopotamia
    Feb 24, 2017 · The pivotal role of the scribe in the development of Mesopotamian culture can scarcely be exaggerated. His was the cohesive force that ...
  3. [3]
    Ancient Egyptian scribes and specific skeletal occupational risk ...
    Jun 27, 2024 · The term “scribes” in relation to ancient Egypt in the third millennium BC covers men who held a wide range of administrative posts or functions ...
  4. [4]
    [PDF] ANCIENT EGYPT'S RELIGIOUS NEED FOR MATHEMATICS
    Scribes were authorities in many aspects of Egyptian culture. They were the creators, teachers, and executors of mathematical processes. The role of a scribe ...
  5. [5]
    The Cuneiform Writing System in Ancient Mesopotamia - EDSITEment
    The English word cuneiform comes from the Latin cuneus, meaning “wedge.” Using cuneiform, written symbols could be quickly made by highly trained scribes ...
  6. [6]
    History of the Book – Chapter 3. Literacy in the Ancient World
    A writer could be exiled for his words, and scribes rushed public speeches in the forum into publication in the form of multiple manuscripts.
  7. [7]
    Ancient Egyptian Scribes: A Cultural Exploration. Bloomsbury ...
    Dec 14, 2017 · This monograph provides a valuable nuancing of our understanding of the scribe's role in Egyptian society.Missing: civilizations | Show results with:civilizations
  8. [8]
    ODYSSEY/Egypt/People - the Carlos Museum
    Scribes were highly valued members of Egyptian society. They studied for many years to learn to read and write. Scribes had great opportunities as accountants, ...Missing: historical civilizations definition
  9. [9]
    Scribes and Ancient Letters - BYU Religious Studies Center
    Because even in the most ideal circumstances the literacy rate was not more than 10–15 percent of the population (including women and slaves), scribes were used ...
  10. [10]
    [PDF] Writing Systems as a Reflection of Ancient Societies
    This resulted in a very low literacy rate within both societies; neither likely above two percent.
  11. [11]
    [PDF] Of Monks, Medieval Scribes, and Middlemen
    at 10. (noting that, in the early Middle Ages, "the responsibility for the preservation of the old-time literature and for keeping alive some continuity of ...
  12. [12]
    The Medieval Scriptorium (Getty Center Exhibitions)
    Nov 24, 2009 · A scribe wrote the text for a book, and an artist, called an illuminator, painted the pictures and decoration. Scribes and illuminators made ...
  13. [13]
    Ancient Egyptian scribes and specific skeletal occupational risk ...
    Jun 27, 2024 · Men with writing proficiency enjoyed a privileged position in ancient Egyptian society in the third millennium BC.
  14. [14]
    David Burzillo: Writing and World History
    Many primary source documents help shed light on the importance of the scribe in the administration of early complex society.
  15. [15]
    Cuneiform Writing Techniques - CDLI Wiki
    Oct 25, 2020 · When cuneiform writing was first invented in ancient Sumer, the scribes scratched signs on the moist clay by means of a pointed instrument ...Missing: alphabetic | Show results with:alphabetic
  16. [16]
    The Writing Instrument ( The Reed and Quill) and Ink
    May 23, 2016 · I will be talking about two particular writing instruments used in antiquity, and late antiquity to the 19th century; The reed pen & the feather quill.
  17. [17]
    The Evolution of Ink - Friesens
    Oct 8, 2024 · These inks were typically made from natural sources like soot, animal glue, and plant dyes. The Chinese developed ink sticks using soot and glue ...Missing: composition clay envelopes libraries
  18. [18]
    The Preservation and restoration of paper records and books
    Since ancient times, inks have been of three distinct types, namely vegetable, animal and mineral. The precise ingredients have varied consider- ably, ...
  19. [19]
    Nippur Rebaked - Expedition Magazine - Penn Museum
    The Museum's collection consists of approximately 25,000 clay tablets, the majority of which were excavated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries at the ...
  20. [20]
    [PDF] Understanding Hieroglyphs: Be the Scribe
    The hieroglyphs were generally used either in carving stone, painting on walls, or written on paper made of papyrus. Papyrus was a plant that grew readily ...
  21. [21]
    Parchment-making | Cornell University Library Conservation
    Apr 3, 2015 · Parchment is made by soaking an animal skin (usually from a goat, sheep or calf) in lime and then stretching it on a frame, scraping it to remove excess tissue.
  22. [22]
    [PDF] chapter 1, Writing Materials in the Ancient World - Duke People
    Parchment, ostraca, and wooden tablets also receive considerable atten- tion, while linen (e.g., mummy bandages) and stone (mainly Coptic limestone ostraca ...
  23. [23]
    The Origins of Writing - Owlcation
    Mar 11, 2025 · Cuneiform signs were formed by pressing a stylus on wet clay, each time producing a wedge shape. Cuneiform means 'wedge-shaped' in Latin. The ...
  24. [24]
    8 Facts About Ancient Egypt's Hieroglyphic Writing - History.com
    Jul 26, 2021 · The Egyptians adorned the insides of their temples, monuments and tombs with hieroglyphic writing and wrote it on papyrus, an ancient paper made from reeds.Hieroglyphics Uses Pictures... · Ancient Egyptians Used Other... · The Rosetta Stone Led To A...
  25. [25]
    Phoenician Alphabet Origin
    An intriguing look into the origin of the Phoenician alphabet and how it led to the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, Roman, Arabic and other alphabets.
  26. [26]
    The Importance of Clay Tablets in Ancient Civilizations - LIS Academy
    Feb 7, 2024 · Some tablets were designed as envelopes, with the original tablet sealed inside a clay casing to prevent tampering. Specialized tablet formats.
  27. [27]
    From papyrus scroll to codex - Digital PUL
    Over time scrolls were replaced by the codex, single- or multi-gatherings of sheets, bound at one side to a spine and cover of wooden, cloth, or leather boards.
  28. [28]
    [PDF] Writing was invent - Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures
    3000 bc. Seal: marble and copper. 5.4 x 4.5 cm. Vorderasiatisches Museum ... professional scribe occupied the top right-hand portion (text A) of the ...
  29. [29]
    [PDF] 1. Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals
    First, the simple tokens were gathered in discrete assemblages and encased in clay balls in the periods immediately before the emergence of proto-cuneiform ca. ...
  30. [30]
    [PDF] No. 46 - Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures
    for scribe (dub-sar) does not, in itself, prove that Iranian and Sumerian ... I. J. Gelb, "On the Alleged Temple and State Economies in Ancient Mesopotamia," ...
  31. [31]
    Re-modeling Political Economy in Early 3rd Millennium BC ...
    According to Visicato (2000: 16-18) the title dub-sar “scribe” is also attested (UET 2, 93, 297) and performs tasks similar to that of the sanga, although ...
  32. [32]
    Babylonian Law--The Code of Hammurabi. - Avalon Project
    The decision given was embodied in writing, sealed and witnessed by the judges, the elders, witnesses and a scribe. Women might act in all these capacities. ...
  33. [33]
    [PDF] THE GILGAMESH EPIC AND OLD TESTAMENT PARALLELS
    has on him and on an unnamed scribe are recorded on the reverse of the tablet, reading as follows. 1. [Kum]maya lay down to sleep and saw a night-vision. In ...
  34. [34]
    cylinder seal - British Museum
    Names the owner as Kalki, a scribe and servant of Ubil-Eshtar, brother of the king, possibly Sargon of Akkad (2334BC-2279BC). Curator's comments: The scene ...
  35. [35]
    [PDF] THE SUMERIANS - Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures
    Sumerian school, the edubba (see chapter vi). In his hymns he boasts of the learning and erudition that he himself obtained in the edubba in the days of his ...
  36. [36]
    Memorization and the Transmission of Sumerian Literary ...
    References to the use of Sumerian literary texts as tools for training scribes, which can be found in nearly every treatment of Sumerian liter- ature ...
  37. [37]
    How to write cuneiform | British Museum
    Jan 21, 2021 · Learn how to write cuneiform – the oldest form of writing in the world – with curator Irving Finkel, using a lolly stick and piece of clay!Missing: hieroglyphic carving
  38. [38]
    Social Structure in Ancient Egypt - World History Encyclopedia
    Sep 21, 2017 · The society of ancient Egypt was strictly divided into a hierarchy with the king at the top and then his vizier, the members of his court, priests and scribes.
  39. [39]
    [PDF] Egyptian Writing Systems and Grammar - andrew.cmu.ed
    Mar 2, 2009 · 1.2 Hieratic and Demotic writing. Hieratic is a cursive form of writing which evolved in a fairly natural fashion from the hieroglyphs. The ...
  40. [40]
    Ancient Egyptian Language Program - Middle Eastern Studies
    These were written in at least four different scripts: Hieroglyphs, Hieratic, Demotic and Coptic. ... the Rosetta Stone, inscribed in Hieroglyphs, Demotic and ...Missing: systems | Show results with:systems
  41. [41]
    https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/scribes/
  42. [42]
    Scribes in ancient Egypt - Pharaoh.se
    They were responsible for tasks such as record-keeping, drafting legal documents, and maintaining religious texts.
  43. [43]
    The Ebers Papyrus - Egypt Museum
    The Ebers Papyrus is written in hieratic and represents the most extensive and best-preserved record of ancient Egyptian medicine known.
  44. [44]
    Ancient Egypt History for Kids - Education, The House of Life
    The House of Life was where priests learned to read and write, where scribe school was held, where medical school was held, hwere the interpretatin of dreams ...
  45. [45]
    Scribe's Palette and Brushes - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Discovered in the debris from the forecourt of a tomb at Thebes, this group of objects would have belonged to a scribe. Included here are a wooden palette ...
  46. [46]
    Everything you ever wanted to know about the Rosetta Stone
    Jul 14, 2017 · The Rosetta Stone is thus one of many mass-produced stelae designed to widely disseminate an agreement issued by a council of priests in 196 BC ...
  47. [47]
    Book of the Dead of the Goldworker of Amun, Sobekmose
    The ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead was a set of spells and instructions to assist the dead on their journey to the afterlife. Here, some of the nearly ...
  48. [48]
    The early history of the Greek alphabet: new evidence fromEretria ...
    Sep 15, 2016 · The adoption of alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians, and its adaptation, by the Greeks sometime in the eighth century BC, was one of the ...
  49. [49]
    https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/oral-tradition-and-written-record-in-classical-athens/33B0E695551E4AE6CBED2BBCB9F0EECF
  50. [50]
    Oral Tradition and Written Record in Classical Athens
    Despite its written literature, ancient Greece was in many ways an oral society. This is the first serious attempt to study the implications of this view.
  51. [51]
    The Ancient Greek Secretary : a study of secretaries in Athens and ...
    This thesis explores the roles played by secretaries in Athens and the Peloponnese.
  52. [52]
    The history of the text of Aristophanes - Academia.edu
    The ongoing instability of dramatic texts is examined through the lens of Aristophanes' work. It outlines how changes can affect text transmission, ...
  53. [53]
    The Hands That Write: Life and Training of Greco-Roman Scribes
    This dissertation examines how ancient scribes were trained, their social backgrounds, their curriculum, and how they mastered scribal tools and techniques.
  54. [54]
    The Great Library of Alexandria
    It likely had been dedicated by Ptolemy II Philadelphus in about 283 BC, when he succeeded his father and became sole ruler of Egypt. The Museum, which was a ...
  55. [55]
    [PDF] Aristotle's Lyceum - PROFESSOR EDITH HALL - Gresham College
    May 30, 2019 · The Lyceum he set up at Athens in 335 BCE was the first institution we know of in world history to combine systematic research activity into ...
  56. [56]
    The Scribes of Rome. A Cultural and Social History of the Scribae
    The fact that the Roman state heavily relied on these professional scribes in financial and legal administration led to their holding a unique position and ...
  57. [57]
    Ancient Scripts: Rustic Capitals, Old and New Roman Cursive
    May 25, 2016 · It was square capitals (capitalis quadrata) for inscriptions on public monuments since the early imperial age, old and new Roman cursive for daily writing.
  58. [58]
    New Roman Cursive – Dartmouth Ancient Books Lab
    May 25, 2016 · Old roman cursive was a popular script between the 1st century BCE to the third century CE. It can be found mostly on wax tablets, graffiti, and other various ...
  59. [59]
    [PDF] Origins and Development of the Notariate at Ravenna (Sixth through ...
    Aug 31, 2025 · ancient Roman imperial notaries, they were stenographers attached to ... Did the ancient schola of tabelliones at Ravenna perform any ...Missing: scribae | Show results with:scribae
  60. [60]
    [PDF] What's with Caesar and the Third Person in the Gallic Wars?
    Dec 20, 2021 · Ruth L. BReindeL. Abstract: While we say that the Gallic Wars were written by Caesar, they were really written by the scribes.<|control11|><|separator|>
  61. [61]
    Rustic Capitals and Roman Cursive – Dartmouth Ancient Books Lab
    May 24, 2016 · Rustic capitals were used for copying and writing literary works. The individual letters in rustic capitals are easier to read than new and old roman cursive.
  62. [62]
    [PDF] Cambridge Histories Online
    If the Greeks were first in Europe to create and record literature, to develop literary genres and define their natures, and to evolve critical systems for.
  63. [63]
    Scroll and Codex - Sir Thomas Browne
    That impetus came from the early Christian church, which adopted the form of the codex to differentiate its writings from the sacred books of Jewish scripture ...
  64. [64]
    Chinese Writing from 5000 B.C. to Present
    The oracle-bone inscriptions are the earliest body of writing we yet possess for East Asia. They were written in a script (Shang-dynasty script) that was ...
  65. [65]
    The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE | FSI - SPICE - Stanford
    The oracle bone inscriptions are the oldest known form of Chinese writing. ... Keightley, Sources of Shang History: The Oracle Bone Inscriptions of Bronze ...
  66. [66]
    Calligraphy Style Evolution - China Online Museum
    The Qin variant of seal script became the standard and was adopted as the formal script for all of China in the Qin dynasty, and was still widely used for ...
  67. [67]
    The Origin and Evolution of Official Script in Chinese Calligraphic Font
    Nov 22, 2022 · The large seal script, which had been used for a long time in the Zhou Dynasty, was sorted out by Li Si and others and became a standardized and ...
  68. [68]
    [PDF] Scribes in Early Imperial China - eScholarship
    in the empire. There were officials who were both immersed in the Confucian classics and competent in legal and administrative affairs during the Han period.
  69. [69]
    Ancient China: the Emergence of the Confucian State | TimeMaps
    The capabilities of the Han dynasty civil service can be seen in the fact that it organized and conducted a series of population counts – censuses – throughout ...
  70. [70]
    Shiji 史記(www.chinaknowledge.de)
    Shiji 史記"Records of the [Grand] Scribe" is a very famous universal history of early China and the first of the official dynastic histories (zhengshi 正史) ...
  71. [71]
    The Confucian Classics & the Civil Service Examinations
    The civil service examination system was squarely based upon the Confucian classics and upon recognized commentaries on those classics.
  72. [72]
    taixue 太學 (www.chinaknowledge.de)
    The Taixue 太學 "National University" was the highest educational institution in imperial China. · In the beginning, there were only 50 persons in the University ...
  73. [73]
    Writing on Bamboo and Silk in Ancient China - History of Information
    Through China's classical period, writing was done with a bamboo pen, with ink of soot, or lampblack upon slips of bamboo or wood.Missing: scribes | Show results with:scribes
  74. [74]
    Writing and Technology in China - Asia Society
    The four implements of brush, ink, inkstone and paper, were later dubbed the "Four Treasures of the Scholar's Studio." The scholar-official class, an outgrowth ...Missing: scribes | Show results with:scribes
  75. [75]
    The First Emperor of China Destroys Most Records of the Past Along ...
    "Qin Shi Huang burned the other histories out of fear that they undermined his legitimacy, and wrote his own history books.
  76. [76]
    23.4: The Qin Dynasty - Humanities LibreTexts
    Oct 1, 2024 · Killing the Scholars and Burning the Books (18th century Chinese painting): In 213 BCE, Qin Shihuang ordered the burning of all books on non- ...The Qin Dynasty · Architecture of the Qin Dynasty · Literature of the Qin Dynasty
  77. [77]
    Scribes in Early Historic Court and Society (200 BCE - Academia.edu
    The emergence of trained scribes, particularly the 'lekhaka', in early historic courts (200 BCE - 200 CE) plays a crucial role in understanding the dynamics ...
  78. [78]
    Brahmi Script - World History Encyclopedia
    Nov 14, 2016 · The Brahmi script is the earliest writing system developed in India after the Indus script. It is one of the most influential writing systems.Missing: scribes | Show results with:scribes
  79. [79]
    Development of the Devanagari script
    Aug 15, 2020 · The Devanagari script, used for writing Sanskrit and other Indian languages had evolved over a period of more than two thousand years.
  80. [80]
    Explore Palm Leaf Manuscripts of South Asia - Google Arts & Culture
    The use of palm leaves for writing in South and Southeast Asia goes back to the 5th century BCE and remained prevalent in South India till the 19th century.
  81. [81]
    Into the Fray: An Introduction to the Maha·bhárata
    It was then that the scribes began their work, and the Maha·bhárata its slow journey into text. Each scribe etched into palm leaves the words that he had heard ...
  82. [82]
    [PDF] MEMORY OF THE WORLD REGISTER - UNESCO
    The material in this collection of Rigveda manuscripts was also used to prepare the well known Critical Edition of the Rigveda by the Vaidika Samshodhana ...Missing: scribes | Show results with:scribes
  83. [83]
    Scribe, Engravers and Engraving of the Asokan Edicts - Academia.edu
    What role did scribes play in the engraving of Asokan Edicts?add. Scribes, notably Capada, were literate professionals who prepared drafts and coordinated ...
  84. [84]
    [PDF] The Guru-Shishya Parampara - Dr. Ashok Da Ranade
    Students were required to copy many manuscripts and many languages were taught. ... In addition, it also worked within parameters of a larger oral tradition ...
  85. [85]
    Ajanta Cave XVI Inscription (Tr.) VV Mirashi, 1941. - Academia.edu
    The Ajanta Cave XVI inscription dates back to the 5th century CE, detailing the Vakataka dynasty. VV Mirashi's translation emphasizes the historical ...
  86. [86]
    How Buddhism spread written language around the world - BBC
    Jan 15, 2020 · By ensuring that the Buddha's teachings were transmitted across millennia, the religion helped develop and spread printing techniques around ...
  87. [87]
    The History of the Japanese Language
    The earliest known examples of Japanese writing, dating back to the 5th and 6th Centuries A.D., are proper names inscribed with Chinese characters on a mirror ...Missing: 5th | Show results with:5th
  88. [88]
    Japanese Language: Origins of the Chinese Script and Kana
    The katakana is thought to have been developed at the beginning of the 9th century and the hiragana during the second half of the 9th century. By the end of the ...
  89. [89]
    Issues of Format and Medium in Japanese Premodern Books
    May 31, 2016 · In addition to the scribes employed in the practice of copying, there were many others that copied by hand as part of their devotional, ...
  90. [90]
    Japan, 500–1000 A.D. | Chronology | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
    Emperor Shōmu (r. 724-49) establishes an official scriptorium (Shakyōshi, later called Shakyōjo) within the grounds of the imperial palace. The scribes who work ...
  91. [91]
    Ritualized Writing: Buddhist Practice and Scriptural Cultures in ...
    In stockSutra copying thus functioned as a form of ritualized writing, a strategic practice that set apart scripture as uniquely efficacious and venerable.
  92. [92]
    The Heian Academy: literati culture from Minamoto no Shitagō to Ōe ...
    In addition to their various scribal occupations, many literati worked as household tutors, delivering a classical education to elite families who had no ...
  93. [93]
    Murasaki Shikibu 紫式部 | U-M LSA Center for Japanese Studies (CJS)
    Murasaki Shikibu (973?–1014?) was an author, poet, and lady-in-waiting at court during the Heian period (794–1185). She is most famous as the author of The ...<|separator|>
  94. [94]
    Goshuin: Collecting Stamps at Temples and Shrines
    The history of this practice extends as far back as the Nara Period (710 ... "The Goshuincho: A Necessity For Japan Travel Enthusiasts". Kokoro Media ...
  95. [95]
    The History of Woodblock Printing in Japan
    Woodblock printing was introduced to Japan in the early 7th century from the Asian continent and was first used to mass-produce sacred Buddhist texts.
  96. [96]
    https://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/Ling450ch/reports/Korean3.html
  97. [97]
    Hangŭl, Korean Alphabet - University of Hawaii at Manoa
    Jan 1, 2011 · Hangŭl is the writing system that King Sejong the Great created in 1444 (the 12th lunar month of 1443) and is still used by Koreans today.Missing: invention | Show results with:invention
  98. [98]
    The History of Korean Language, The Overview
    In October 1446, King Sejong presented the Korean people an alphabet of their very own, an alphabet invented by Koreans for Koreans. Because our language ...Missing: Hangul | Show results with:Hangul
  99. [99]
    Memory of the World - Korea Heritage Service
    Seungjeongwon Ilgi has the largest amount of authentic historic recordings and state secrets of the Joseon Dynasty.
  100. [100]
    (PDF) Introduction to Korean Spirituality - Academia.edu
    This paper explores the nuances of Korean spirituality within the framework of comparative religious analysis, emphasizing the importance of understanding ...
  101. [101]
    King Sejong and the Korean Alphabets - by LA Seoulite
    Oct 6, 2024 · The Hall of Worthies, or Jiphyeonjeon, was a Korean royal research institute during the Joseon period. It was founded by King Sejong the Great ...Missing: scriptorium | Show results with:scriptorium
  102. [102]
    Soferim - Jewish Virtual Library
    Be more heedful of the words of the soferim than of those of the Written Law[Torah]. For the words of the Torah contain positive and negative injunctions (for ...
  103. [103]
    7. The Scribes - Bible.org
    Apr 21, 2006 · The scribes have a notable history. All ancient peoples had large numbers of scribes for the transmission of religious texts and other legal ...Missing: reliable | Show results with:reliable
  104. [104]
    Ezra the Scribe - Jewish Virtual Library
    Ezra (480–440 BCE), also called Ezra the Scribe (Ezra ha-Sofer) and Ezra the Priest in the Book of Ezra, was a Jewish scribe and a priest.
  105. [105]
    The Story of Ezra the Scribe in the Bible - Chabad.org
    Ezra the Scribe (Ezra HaSofer) led the second wave of Jews returning from Babylon to Israel. He headed the religious revival of the people there.
  106. [106]
    The Torah Scroll: How the Copying Process Became Sacred
    Feb 22, 2023 · The ancients were called soferim(lit. “counters”) because they counted every letter in Scripture. This careful approach to copying was meant to ...
  107. [107]
    [PDF] writing jewish sacred texts: reading tractate soferim
    The first half of Tractate Soferim focuses mainly on the construction and writing of the Torah scroll itself, and then moves on to rules for public Torah ...Missing: reliable | Show results with:reliable
  108. [108]
    How Did Scribes and the Scribal Tradition Shape the Hebrew Bible?
    Dec 14, 2022 · Ancient Near Eastern scribes lived and worked in a culture where texts were primarily transmitted orally/aurally, which helps explain the variations in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  109. [109]
    Masoretic Text - Jewish Virtual Library
    Specific scholars and scribes were chosen for this task, these men were called Masoretes. Masoretes derives its name from the word “masorah” meaning “tradition; ...Missing: development | Show results with:development
  110. [110]
    Dating the Oldest New Testament Christian Manuscripts
    Feb 12, 2023 · Then in 1961, a papyrus codex containing the Gospels of Luke and John in Greek (P.Bodmer XIV–XV or P75 to specialists) was published. It is ...
  111. [111]
    Codex Sinaiticus - Home
    - **Origins**: Codex Sinaiticus is a handwritten Christian Bible in Greek, created over 1600 years ago.
  112. [112]
    What's Missing from Codex Sinaiticus, the Oldest New Testament?
    Aug 12, 2015 · Dating to the mid-fourth century C.E., Codex Sinaiticus is the oldest complete manuscript of the New Testament. In his article “Hero or Thief?
  113. [113]
    CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Early Christian Inscriptions
    Inscriptions of Christian origin form, as non-literary remains, a valuable source of information on the development of Christian thought and life in the early ...
  114. [114]
    405 Jerome Completes the Vulgate | Christian History Magazine
    Jerome's translation, known as the Vulgate (from the Latin word vulgus, meaning “common” language), became the standard. A millennium later, for example, Martin ...
  115. [115]
    Library : The History of the Latin Vulgate | Catholic Culture
    The following two-part essay provides an excellent overview of the history of the Latin Vulgate, beginning with the life of St. Jerome, revisions and ...
  116. [116]
    2. INTRODUCTION TO MINUSCULE BOOKHANDS | Greek ...
    The vast majority of medieval Greek manuscripts are written in a quadrilinear "minuscule" script which is very different from the "majuscule" script we have ...Missing: Christian sources<|control11|><|separator|>
  117. [117]
    [PDF] the johannine comma (1 john 5:7–8): the status of its textual history ...
    Abstract. This article presents a status quaestionis on the origin, transmission, and theological use of the Johannine comma, a section of 1 John 5:7–8,.
  118. [118]
    First Council of Nicaea – 325 AD - Papal Encyclicals
    This council opened on 19 June in the presence of the emperor, but it is uncertain who presided over the sessions. In the extant lists of bishops present.
  119. [119]
    [PDF] FIRST COUNCIL OF NICAEA - 325 AD - Documenta Catholica Omnia
    This council opened on 19 June in the presence of the emperor, but it is uncertain who presided over the sessions. In the extant lists of bishops present, ...
  120. [120]
    The ʿUthmānic Codex: Understanding how the Qur'an was Preserved
    Jun 22, 2022 · An overview of the history behind the Uthmanic codex and how it was compiled to preserve the Quran as it was revealed to the Prophet ...
  121. [121]
    The Qur'anic Manuscripts - Islamic Awareness
    This manuscript was written in kufic script and contains 275 folios. The extant folios contain about 86% of the text of the Qur'an. The script is slightly ...Concise List Of Arabic... · Topkapi Library · Codex Ṣanʿāʾ 1
  122. [122]
    How were young Muslim minds shaped? A critical study of the kuttāb ...
    Feb 11, 2021 · The kuttāb was a modest institution for elementary education, with most emphasis being placed on learning the Qurʾān by heart―hence a 'Qurʾānic school' in ...
  123. [123]
    https://books.openedition.org/obp/2231?lang=en
  124. [124]
    A guide to the seven styles of Arabic calligraphy | Middle East Eye
    Jan 5, 2023 · Naskh, which in Arabic means "to copy", is a rounded and flowing form of calligraphy that is mostly used for transcribing the Quran and other ...
  125. [125]
    5. Localising Islamic knowledge: acquisition and copying of the ...
    21The donation of books as waqf (pious endowment, permanently removing the item in question from circulation in the market) served as a way for the learned ...
  126. [126]
    Arab papermaking - History of Information
    Traditionally scholars believed that Chinese prisoners of war taken at the battle of Talas conveyed papermaking techniques to the Arabs.
  127. [127]
    The House of Wisdom: Baghdad's Intellectual Powerhouse
    Apr 18, 2016 · It began as a translation house, translating Greek texts into Arabic and rapidly started to attract the greatest minds in the Islamic world, ...
  128. [128]
    St. Benedict Founds the Abbey at Monte Cassino and Later ...
    St. Benedict founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino in 529 CE and formulated his rule in 547, which emphasized prayer, study, and assistance of the sick.
  129. [129]
    Medieval Book Production and Monastic Life - Sites at Dartmouth
    May 24, 2016 · It wasn't until the fourth century AD that the Medieval world was introduced to monastic life, in the form of a devout Egyptian Christian named Pachomius.
  130. [130]
    https://blog.digitizedmedievalmanuscripts.org/codicology/medieval-scripts/caroline-minuscule/
  131. [131]
    The Book of Kells - The Library of Trinity College Dublin
    Aug 18, 2021 · The Book of Kells (Trinity College Dublin MS 58) contains the four Gospels in Latin based on the Vulgate text which St Jerome completed in 384AD.
  132. [132]
    Caroline minuscule - DMMapp Blog - Digitized Medieval Manuscripts
    The Carolingian minuscule was developed during the reign of Charlemagne, who ruled the Frankish Empire from 768 to 814 CE. Charlemagne was a patron of learning ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
  133. [133]
    How Silent Were Medieval Monasteries? | English Heritage
    Silence is a constant theme in the Rule of St Benedict, which states that 'monks should diligently cultivate silence at all times'. This strict regulation ...
  134. [134]
    [PDF] The Sinister Side of Medieval European Scribes
    At the end of a text, scribes would often leave notes called colophons. These notes vary from details on the cost of the text, praises for God, complaints, to ...
  135. [135]
    How Medieval Monks and Scribes Helped Preserve Classical Culture
    Jun 16, 2025 · The small band of monastic scribes did manage to preserve and pass on a great deal of ancient literature.
  136. [136]
    Abbaye de Cluny - Medieval spiritual center - Travel France Online
    Odon's acquisitions of manuscripts from prominent abbeys, combined with the prolific output of its scriptorium, enriched the abbey's literary treasures.
  137. [137]
    Hildegard of Bingen and Her Scribes (Chapter 13)
    Oct 28, 2021 · This chapter provides an overview of scribal activity and manuscript production on the Rupertsberg during the lifetime of Hildegard of Bingen, ...
  138. [138]
    Christine de Pizan: Women's Most Famous Medieval Defender
    May 15, 2022 · Said to have been the first professional woman writer, Christine de Pizan's life and career rivalled that of any of her better-known male counterparts.
  139. [139]
    Christine de Pizan, Professional Writer and Voice for Women in the ...
    Aug 30, 2023 · Christine de Pizan (1364-1430), first professional woman author in Europe, was considered by Simone de Beauvoir to be the first woman to ...
  140. [140]
    Women as Scribes - Assets - Cambridge University Press
    Operating a scriptorium was expensive, in terms of both materials and human capital, putting book production out of the reach of many small women's monasteries.
  141. [141]
    Letters and embroidery allowed medieval women to express their ...
    Feb 15, 2024 · Embroidery was another way that medieval women could express their emotions. These women used their needles as pens, subverting the traditional ...
  142. [142]
    Women in the Middle Ages - World History Encyclopedia
    Mar 18, 2019 · Women's place in the clergy was restricted to the nunnery. Noble women's positions were dictated by how much land they brought to marriage ...Missing: barriers post-
  143. [143]
    Hrotsvit of Gandersheim – Martha Carlin
    Aug 19, 2014 · Hrotsvit of Gandersheim was a tenth-century Saxon poet, playwright and historian, the first Western writer to adapt classical dramatic form and verse to ...
  144. [144]
    Women Scribes: The Technologists of the Middle Ages
    Feb 15, 2018 · Countering this erasure, women literally inscribed themselves into manuscripts. ... Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, ...Missing: 1066 | Show results with:1066
  145. [145]
    How many medieval and early modern manuscripts were copied by ...
    Mar 8, 2025 · Based on realistic assumptions we show that at least 1.1% of the medieval manuscripts were copied by female scribes (lower estimate). Using the ...
  146. [146]
    Medieval women's early involvement in manuscript production ...
    Jan 9, 2019 · A single example would not pass the muster of saying that nuns were part of medieval scriptorium unless numerous other examples were unearthed.
  147. [147]
    List of Civic Offices - Medieval Londoners
    Duties were many and included drafting letters, serving as an envoy, keeping city records safe, compiling records such as the Letter Books, Journals, and city ...Missing: 12th | Show results with:12th
  148. [148]
    None
    Summary of each segment:
  149. [149]
    Medieval seals - The National Archives
    A medieval seal was used to prove that a document was really from the person or group that it said it was from. Not everyone sealed a document with their own ...
  150. [150]
    In Medieval Britain, if you wanted to get ahead, you had to speak ...
    Mar 16, 2018 · After the Norman Conquest, French became a major language of administration, education, literature and law in England (and, to some extent, elsewhere in ...<|separator|>
  151. [151]
    https://www.academia.edu/9890330/The_Cost_of_Doing_Scribal_Business_Prices_of_Manuscript_Books_in_England_1300_1483
  152. [152]
    Stanford scholar discovers unknown Magna Carta scribe
    Sep 1, 2015 · Manuscript expert Elaine Treharne shows that one of the world's most famous documents was written not by the king's scribes, but by a cathedral ...
  153. [153]
    Prices of Manuscript Books in England, 1300-1483 - Academia.edu
    Population concentration in urban centers post-Black Death led to rising artisan wages, which increased manuscript production costs. However, the collaborative ...
  154. [154]
    [PDF] Enheduanna: Princess, Priestess, Poet, and Mathematician
    Enheduanna, Mesopotamian high priestess of the moon god, Nanna, and daughter of King Sargon of Akkad, is the first recorded author in world history.
  155. [155]
    Princess, Priestess, Poet - University of Texas Press
    Living in 2300 BCE, Sumerian high priestess Enheduanna became the first author of historical record by signing her name to a collection of hymns written for ...
  156. [156]
    Imhotep and the Discovery of Cerebrospinal Fluid - PMC - NIH
    Feb 21, 2014 · We first meet the person Imhotep in the beginning of the Old Kingdom (27th century BC) as the chancellor of Djoser and supposed architect behind ...
  157. [157]
    [PDF] The Masterpiece
    scribe in Egypt must have known to be the work of. The inscription relates that in the time of Zoser, the Imhotep, the great architect and scribe of Zoser's.
  158. [158]
    The Libraries of Alexandria and Pergamon as Classical Models
    Jun 3, 2020 · This essay, about the Library of Alexandria in Egypt and the Library of Pergamon in Asia Minor, is an online rewriting-in-progress of an earlier essay.
  159. [159]
    [PDF] Homer and the Bible in the Eyes of Ancient Interpreters
    Zenodotus of Ephesus, the fijirst librarian of Alexandria between ca. 285 and 270 B.C.E. He used the obelos ('spit' in Greek) to mark those lines that he ...
  160. [160]
    Tironian Notes, Possibly the Earliest System of Shorthand
    Tironian notes (notae Tironianae) is a system of shorthand said to have been invented by Cicero's Offsite Link scribe Marcus Tullius Tiro.
  161. [161]
    An ancient handbook of short-hand: Tironian notes and the ...
    Aug 14, 2019 · According to a credible statement by Isidore of Seville, M. Tullius Tiro, a freedman of Cicero's, was the inventor of a basic corpus of signs ...
  162. [162]
    [PDF] Sima Qian's Conquest Of History" By G. Hardy - Swarthmore College
    Sima Qian was the scribe par excellence for the Han court. ... Hardy romanizes the title as Shiji, and understands it to mean Records of the Scribes; see. 220 n.
  163. [163]
    A life in translation | WSU Insider | Washington State University
    Aug 14, 2025 · The Grand Scribe's Records, or Shiji, is a sprawling, 130-chapter epic compiled more than 2,000 years ago by Sima Qian, a court historian under ...
  164. [164]
    https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=object%3BEPM%3Buk%3BMus21%3B22%3Ben
  165. [165]
    Bible of Stephen Harding (12th century) - Medieval Organ
    The Harding Bible (Dijon, Biblioteque Municipale 14) is a manuscript dated 1109-1111 from the Cistercian abbey of Cîteaux in Burgundy (France).
  166. [166]
    Part 15 of a 30-part Qur'an copied by Yaqut al-Musta'simi
    Folio 58a bears the signature of the celebrated Baghdadi calligrapher, Yaqut al-Musta'simi (d. 1298 AD), who gave the classical repertory of Qur'anic ...