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Smooth breathing

The smooth breathing (Greek: ψιλὸν πνεῦμα, psilòn pneûma, meaning "bare spirit") is a diacritical mark employed in the polytonic orthography of Ancient Greek to denote the absence of aspiration—the voiceless glottal fricative sound /h/—at the onset of a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong.^[1] Represented by a curved apostrophe-like symbol (᾿) positioned above the initial lowercase vowel or the second element of a diphthong, or to the left of an uppercase vowel, it contrasts directly with the rough breathing (dasý pneûma, ῾), which signals the presence of the /h/ sound.^[2] This mark ensures precise pronunciation and distinguishes homographs, such as ὅρος (hóros, "boundary," with rough breathing) from ὄρος (óros, "mountain," with smooth breathing).^[3] In practice, the smooth breathing is mandatory for every word starting with a vowel or diphthong in classical and later Greek texts, though it can often be omitted in modern pronunciation without altering meaning, as the /h/ sound had largely disappeared from spoken Greek by the Koine period due to a phonetic shift known as psilosis.^[4] For initial rho (ρ), only the rough breathing applies (ῥ), never the smooth, reflecting the letter's inherent aspiration in ancient dialects.^[5] The mark's placement follows specific rules: over the first vowel in a diphthong if it includes an iota subscript (e.g., ᾠδή, "song"), and it interacts with accents, which are positioned above or below the breathing as needed.^[3] These conventions aid in reading aloud and preserving the rhythmic and phonetic nuances of ancient texts, from Homeric epics to philosophical treatises. Historically, breathing marks like the smooth breathing emerged in the Hellenistic era among Alexandrian scholars, likely in the 3rd or 2nd century BCE, to standardize and preserve fading aspirates in the evolving Greek language amid dialectal variations and the loss of the letter heta (Ͱ), which once represented /h/.^[4] Prior to this innovation, aspiration was inconsistently indicated or inferred from context in earlier inscriptions and papyri, and the smooth breathing itself was sometimes omitted in classical manuscripts until becoming a fixed feature in scholarly editions by the Koine and Byzantine periods.^[5] Today, while polytonic Greek retains the smooth breathing for classical studies and liturgical use, monotonic orthography in Modern Greek has eliminated it entirely, reflecting the complete psilosis of initial /h/ sounds.^[4]

Overview

Definition

The smooth breathing (Greek: ψιλὸν πνεῦμα, psilòn pneûma) is a diacritical mark employed in polytonic Greek orthography to denote the absence of the /h/ sound at the onset of a word.^[6] Phonetically, it signifies a smooth vocalic onset devoid of the glottal fricative /h/, thereby contrasting with the rough breathing, which indicates the presence of aspiration.^[2]^[6] The mark adheres to specific placement conventions: it appears above initial vowels (including the second element of diphthongs), to the left of initial capital vowels, and over rho in certain medial positions; notably, it is omitted from initial upsilon, which invariably takes the rough breathing.^[2]^[6] Within polytonic Greek orthography, the smooth breathing fulfills an essential function in lexical disambiguation, averting confusion between homographic words differentiated solely by the presence or absence of an initial /h/ sound.^[6]

Comparison to Rough Breathing

The rough breathing, known in Ancient Greek as δασύ πνεῦμα (dasý pneûma), serves as the direct counterpart to the smooth breathing by marking the presence of the voiceless glottal fricative /h/ at the onset of a word.^[7] It is represented by a diacritical mark shaped like a reversed half-H (῾), placed over the initial vowel, diphthong, or consonant to indicate aspiration.^[2] In terms of phonological opposition, the smooth breathing denotes the absence of aspiration, allowing an initial vowel or diphthong to be pronounced without the /h/ sound (e.g., ἀ- as /a/), while the rough breathing adds the /h/ onset (e.g., ἁ- as /ha/).^[7] This binary distinction reflects the allophonic variation in Ancient Greek where aspiration was phonemically significant, particularly in initial positions, helping to differentiate minimal pairs. Both breathings follow identical rules of application: they are required on all initial vowels and diphthongs, as well as on the consonant rho (ρ) when word-initial.^[3] However, the rough breathing is mandatory for initial upsilon (υ) and initial rho, regardless of other factors, whereas the smooth breathing appears only where no /h/ is present.^[7] This oppositional system profoundly impacts word distinction in Ancient Greek, as the choice between smooth and rough breathing can alter meaning entirely; for instance, ὅρος (hóros, "boundary") with rough breathing contrasts with ὄρος (óros, "mountain") bearing smooth breathing.^[7] Such pairs underscore the breathings' role in maintaining lexical clarity within the language's phonology.^[1]

Historical Development

Origins in Greek Orthography

In archaic Greek orthography, the letter H, known as heta or sometimes confused with digamma in certain dialects, served as a precursor to the breathing marks by representing the /h/ sound at the beginning of words. This letter, derived from the Phoenician heth, was used in early inscriptions to denote aspiration, but as the /h/ sound began to weaken or disappear in many Greek dialects by the classical period, the need arose for a more precise system to distinguish aspirated and non-aspirated initials. The heta's form, resembling a square H or a vertical stroke with crossbars, eventually split into diacritical components: the left half evolving into the rough breathing for aspiration, and the right half into the smooth breathing for its absence.^[8] The smooth breathing was formally invented in the 3rd century BCE by Aristophanes of Byzantium, a scholar at the Library of Alexandria, as the right-hand half of the letter eta (H) to explicitly mark the absence of aspiration on initial vowels and diphthongs, complementing the rough breathing which indicated the /h/ sound. This innovation addressed variations in pronunciation across Greek dialects, particularly as psilotic (h-less) speech became prevalent in regions like Ionia and Athens, ensuring textual accuracy in scholarly editions of classical literature. Aristophanes' system was part of a broader set of diacritics, including accents, developed to aid in the reading and teaching of Homer and other poets.^[9] During the Hellenistic period, the smooth breathing was standardized through Alexandrian scholarship at the Library of Alexandria, where it was integrated into editorial practices to promote consistent pronunciation and preserve phonetic nuances in transmitted texts. This adoption reflected the era's emphasis on philological precision, with scholars like Aristarchus of Samothrace further refining the system for use in critical editions. The marks facilitated better oral recitation and interpretation, countering the loss of the /h/ sound in contemporary spoken Greek.^[10] Early evidence of the smooth breathing appears in papyri and inscriptions from the 2nd century BCE, often alongside the rough breathing, demonstrating its initial implementation in literary and scholarly contexts such as copies of dramatic and poetic works. These artifacts, primarily from Egypt, show the diacritics in sporadic but deliberate use, marking the transition from ad hoc notations to a more uniform orthographic convention.^[11]

Use in Other Scripts

The smooth breathing mark, adapted as the Cyrillic psili or zvatel'tse (◌҃, U+0486), influenced the early Cyrillic alphabet developed in the 9th–10th century CE for Old Church Slavonic texts, where it indicated /h/-less vowel onsets to mimic Greek pronunciation conventions.^[12] This diacritic appeared in initial manuscript traditions, such as the Ustav style, primarily to facilitate accurate rendering of Greek-derived liturgical content without the aspiration sound present in Greek.^[13] In Church Slavonic, the psili continued to mark initial vowels, ensuring fidelity to Greek phonetic patterns in translations of religious and scriptural works, and it combined with accents like the iso (acute) for stress indication across recensions from Ustav to Synodal.^[14] Its application persisted in abbreviation systems and ornamental lettering, reflecting the script's role in preserving Byzantine orthographic influences during medieval Slavic literacy.^[14] The smooth breathing equivalent declined sharply in Russian orthography through Peter the Great's civil script reforms of 1707–1710, which discarded archaic diacritics including breathing marks to modernize and simplify printing, as the /h/ sound was phonologically absent in Slavic languages.^[15] These changes targeted secular usage, distinguishing the civil alphabet from ecclesiastical Church Slavonic, where limited remnants endured in religious typography.^[14] Residual applications appeared briefly in other Slavic scripts, such as early Bulgarian Cyrillic manuscripts before 19th-century standardization, where breathing marks were phased out alongside other Greek-inspired features to align with vernacular phonology.^[12]

Notation and Forms

Standard Diacritic

The smooth breathing mark in polytonic Greek orthography is visually represented as a curved apostrophe-like symbol (᾿), resembling a reversed comma or a half-open parenthesis, positioned above the baseline of the initial vowel.^[16] This diacritic indicates the absence of aspiration at the start of a word, contrasting with the rough breathing's reversed form.^[2] For lowercase letters, the mark is placed directly above the initial vowel or, in the case of diphthongs, above the second vowel element, ensuring clear visibility without altering the letter's height.^[2] On uppercase letters, it appears to the left of the vowel, maintaining typographic balance in titles or proper nouns. When combined with pitch accents such as the acute (´) or grave (`), the smooth breathing forms a horizontal stack, with the breathing positioned to the left and the accent to the right; for the circumflex (῀), it sits below the circumflex curve.^[16] In interactions with other diacritics, the smooth breathing is positioned above the vowel that has an iota subscript (ͅ) below it, which attaches to long vowels like alpha, eta, or omega, preserving the subscript's low placement while elevating the breathing for readability, as in ᾳ. When co-occurring with a diaeresis (¨) to denote separate vowel pronunciation, the smooth breathing appears below the diaeresis, following the standard vertical stacking order in polytonic notation.^[17] The typographic form of the smooth breathing evolved from fluid, variable placements in medieval Greek manuscripts, where it was often handwritten in minuscule scripts, to more standardized representations in early printed editions during the Renaissance. Printers like Aldus Manutius adapted manuscript traditions into movable type around 1494, incorporating separate casts for breathing marks to handle their combination with accents, though initial types sometimes simplified or omitted them due to technical challenges.^[18] This shift marked a transition to consistent, reproducible diacritics in printed polytonic Greek.^[19] The coronis serves as a specialized variant of this mark in certain contractions.^[16]

Coronis

The coronis (κορωνίς) is a diacritical mark in Ancient Greek orthography that signals crasis, the contraction of a vowel or diphthong at the end of one word with a vowel or diphthong at the beginning of the next, typically rendered as a curved line or apostrophe over the resulting contracted syllable.^[20] This mark visually resembles the standard smooth breathing but serves to denote the fusion of words rather than the mere absence of aspiration at a word's start.^[21] In terms of placement, the coronis appears directly over the medial vowel formed by the contraction, as in the example τὰ ἄλλα becoming τἄλλα (or τἆλλα if accented), where it is positioned above the α.^[20] It is omitted when the second word begins with a rough breathing, in which case the rough breathing is retained (or transferred) on the contracted vowel.^[22] Historically, the coronis was introduced by Byzantine scholars to systematically indicate crasis in texts of Ancient Greek and became common in medieval manuscripts as well as in printed classical editions, particularly to mark elisions in poetry, dramatic dialogue, and oratorical prose for rhythmic and metrical clarity.^[21]^[20] Unlike the standard smooth breathing, which applies to initial vowels, the coronis often takes a more elongated or decorative form in ornate scribal traditions, emphasizing its role in highlighting syntactic mergers across words.^[21]

Application to Letters

Affected Letters

The smooth breathing mark (ψιλόν, psilon) is applied to initial vowels in ancient Greek words, indicating the absence of the /h/ sound. The primary letters affected are alpha (ἀ in lowercase, Ἀ in uppercase), epsilon (ἐ, Ἐ), eta (ἠ, Ἠ), iota (ἰ, Ἰ), omicron (ὀ, Ὀ), and omega (ὠ, Ὠ).^[23] In lowercase forms, the mark appears as a curved apostrophe-like symbol above the vowel; in uppercase, it is positioned to the left of the letter.^[24] Upsilon (υ) may receive the smooth breathing (ὐ), but such instances are rare as an initial letter, since standalone initial upsilon consistently takes the rough breathing instead.^[25] For diphthongs beginning a word, the smooth breathing is placed above the second element, as in ᾰι (αι with smooth on iota) or εἰ. Exceptions include the contracted diphthongs ᾳ, ῃ, and ῳ, where the mark appears on the first vowel.^[26] A special case involves rho (ρ), which normally bears the rough breathing when initial (ῥ). However, the smooth breathing form (ῤ) is used specifically for the first rho in a double rho sequence within a word (ῤῥ), while the second retains the rough breathing; this occurs only in medial position, not for initial rho following another rho.^[7] Initial rho after another rho across word boundaries always receives the rough breathing, with no smooth mark applied.^[2]

Examples of Usage

The smooth breathing appears in many basic Ancient Greek words beginning with vowels, indicating the absence of an initial aspirate sound. For instance, the word ἀνήρ (anḗr, meaning "man") features a smooth breathing on the initial alpha, resulting in a pronunciation without an "h" sound at the start.^[27]nh/r) A contrasting hypothetical form, ἁνήρ (hanḗr), would incorporate a rough breathing and thus begin with an aspirate, though no such attested word exists in Greek. Similarly, ὄνομα (ónoma, "name") exemplifies smooth breathing on an initial omicron, pronounced smoothly without aspiration.^[28] In cases involving diphthongs, the smooth breathing mark is placed over the second element of the diphthong. The noun αἰών (aiṓn, "age" or "eternity") carries the mark above the iota, signaling no initial aspiration in the diphthong αι.^[29]w/n) Another common example is οἶκος (oîkos, "house"), where the smooth breathing over the iota in the diphthong οι ensures a non-aspirated onset.^[30] Poetic crasis provides further illustrations of smooth breathing, often marked by a coronis (a curved apostrophe-like form) over the contracted syllable. For example, the phrase τὸ ἐμόν ("the mine" or "my own") contracts to τἐμόν in verse, with the coronis representing the smooth breathing on the resulting epsilon.^[31] This usage highlights how smooth breathing integrates into elided forms while preserving pronunciation clarity in metrical contexts.

Modern Representation

In Monotonic Greek

The loss of the initial /h/ sound, known as psilosis, began in certain Greek dialects such as East Ionic as early as the 5th century BCE but became widespread in Hellenistic Greek around the 3rd century BCE, rendering the smooth breathing mark redundant as it no longer distinguished the absence of aspiration in a phonetically relevant way.^[32] This phonetic shift contributed to the gradual obsolescence of both rough and smooth breathings over centuries, as the aspirate disappeared entirely from the spoken language by late antiquity.^[33] In modern Greek orthography, the smooth breathing was fully abolished with the 1982 reform that introduced the monotonic system, simplifying diacritics to a single acute accent mark while eliminating breathings, iota subscripts, and other polytonic features to align writing more closely with contemporary pronunciation and streamline literacy.^[34] Today, it holds no place in standard written or printed modern Greek, where initial vowels are unmarked, reflecting the complete irrelevance of aspiration notation in everyday usage.^[35] However, the smooth breathing persists in scholarly editions of ancient Greek texts, such as critical apparatuses of classical authors or biblical manuscripts, to preserve historical accuracy and facilitate philological analysis.^[10] Despite its official discontinuation, the smooth breathing experiences occasional revival within polytonic orthography for specific cultural and educational purposes, including the transcription of classical literature, academic study of ancient texts, and the Orthodox Church's liturgical practices, where Koine Greek hymns and prayers retain traditional diacritics for authenticity.^[36] Modern software tools, such as Unicode-enabled editors and typesetting programs, support polytonic input to enable this revival, allowing scholars, educators, and clergy to produce accurate representations of historical Greek without manual adjustments.^[37] In these contexts, the smooth breathing serves as a symbolic link to classical heritage, underscoring Greece's enduring connection to its ancient linguistic and literary traditions in academic, religious, and pedagogical settings.^[36]

Unicode Encoding

In Unicode, the smooth breathing (psili) is primarily encoded as U+0313 COMBINING COMMA ABOVE (◌̓), a non-spacing diacritic mark used to indicate the absence of aspiration in ancient and polytonic Greek orthography.^[38] This combining character is applied above the base vowel or initial rho, allowing flexible composition with other diacritics such as accents.^[39] Precomposed forms of Greek letters with the smooth breathing are available in the Greek Extended block (U+1F00–U+1FFF), where specific code points integrate the psili directly with the letter, such as U+1F00 GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI (ἀ).^[40] For the coronis variant, used to mark elision or contraction, Unicode provides U+1FBD GREEK KORONIS (᾽) as a compatibility character and U+0343 COMBINING GREEK KORONIS (◌̓), which canonically decomposes to U+0313.^[40]^[38] Additionally, U+1FBF GREEK PSILI (᾿) serves as a modifier letter form for standalone or modifier use.^[40] An equivalent for the smooth breathing appears in the Cyrillic script as U+0486 COMBINING CYRILLIC PSILI PNEUMATA (◌҆), employed in historical Slavic orthographies influenced by Greek conventions.^[12] Compatibility with the smooth breathing encoding varies across systems and fonts; for instance, it is supported in standard fonts like Times New Roman for basic polytonic Greek, but older rendering engines may exhibit issues with diacritic stacking, such as improper positioning when combining multiple marks like breathings and accents.^[39] Modern applications and OpenType-aware fonts mitigate these by following Unicode's canonical ordering and decomposition rules.^[41]

References

[1]
Getting started on ancient Greek: Session 2 - The Open University
A smooth breathing indicates an absence of an 'h' sound. It can be ignored for the purpose of pronunciation, but ...Missing: diacritic | Show results with:diacritic
[2]
Breathing Marks - Dickinson College Commentaries
A SMOOTH BREATHING mark indicates no aspiration, and a ROUGH BREATHING mark indicates aspiration (S 9-14, G 6).Missing: diacritic | Show results with:diacritic
[3]
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[4]
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Jan 8, 2012 · In Classical Greek, the smooth breathing was often not written, but by the Koine period it became a consistent feature in scholarly and ...
[5]
Pronunciation | Dickinson College Commentaries
... breathing (ʽ) represents the sound of h preceding the vowel, the smooth breathing (ʼ) merely denotes the absence of the h sound. The breathing is now ...Missing: orthography | Show results with:orthography
[6]
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Contents. Part I: Letters, Sounds, Syllables, Accent · The Letters · The Alphabet · Vowels and Diphthongs · Breathings · CONSONANTS.<|control11|><|separator|>
[7]
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The smooth stops are thus distinguished from the rough stops by the absence of breathing. ' (h) is also an aspirate. The middle stops owe their name to their ...Missing: pneuma | Show results with:pneuma
[8]
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centuries, and eventually evolved into the rough and smooth breathing diacritics of conventional Greek orthography, U+0314 Combining Reversed Comma Above and.
[9]
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... breathings. Aristophanes of Byzantium (keeper of the famous. Library at Alexandria under Ptolemy Euergetes, about B.C. 240), though probably not the inventor ...
[10]
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1.12. Breathing marks and accents were introduced by scholars working in the Library of Alexandria in the Hellenistic period. The system of accentuation adopted ...
[11]
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Initial h, represented by a rough breathing in modern texts of ancient Greek and in many literary papyri, was not normally written in documentary papyri.
[12]
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• also used for soft en in Old Church Slavonic. • this is not a ... 0486 $҆ COMBINING CYRILLIC PSILI PNEUMATA. → 0313 $̓ combining comma above.
[13]
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Aug 3, 2003 · ... Combining Cyrillic Psili Pneumata. (Pneumata is Greek for "breathing marks".) The Marian Codex of the Gospel according to Matthew, for ...
[14]
[PDF] Church Slavonic Typography in the Unicode Standard
... Cyrillic breathing mark. 0485. ◌҅. Combining Cyrillic Dasia Pneu- mata dasia. ◌҅. -. -. -. -. e Dasia Pneumata, a “hard breathing”, occurs only in ustav-era ...
[15]
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diacritics and accents were thrown out. The new ... What radical changes did Peter the Great introduce to distance the existing Cyrillic alphabet from the.
[16]
Alphabet and Accents | GREK 1111
Breathing marks · If the open section of the comma faces left, the mark is called a smooth breathing mark, and it doesn't affect the pronunciation of the vowel.
[17]
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iota subscript and smooth breathing ( ᾿ ͅ) shift-5 iota subscript and rough ... a plain alpha, or you can add an accent to an iota with diaeresis, or a breathing ...
[18]
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This essay focuses on the development of Greek types in early printed books in Europe. It examines and compares the most distinct models of Greek typefaces.
[19]
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The first Greek printing press was founded in Venice by Laonikos the Cretan or Nikolaos Kabbadatos and the Cretan Alexander.15th Century, The Beginning... · The Development Of ``greek''... · The Diffusion Of Greek...
[20]
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The coronis is not written when the rough breathing stands on the first word: ὁ ἄνθρωπος = ἄ̄νθρωπος. b. Crasis does not occur when the first vowel may be ...
[21]
Coronis - Nick Nicholas
In conventional Greek orthography, these crases are written with the normal smooth breathing mark as the coronis—although the original breathing mark of the ...
[22]
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smooth breathing: a sign placed over an initial vowel to indicate the ... ized, and the diacritical marks remain on the second vowel: for example, αὐτός when.
[23]
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[24]
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[25]
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[26]
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[27]
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Definition: a name; the proper name , of a person, etc., Mt. 1:23, 25; 10:2; 27:32; a mere name or reputation, Rev. 3:1; in NT a name as the representative of ...
[29]
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[30]
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Smooth breathing mark - The smooth breathing mark is the equivalent of an English apostrophe ' , and it carries no sound with it. In the word, ἀγάπη, The ' is a ...Missing: psilon | Show results with:psilon
[31]
Crasis | Dickinson College Commentaries
If the first syllable had the rough breathing, that is retained over the mingled syllable; otherwise the smooth breathing is written. ... ὁ ἀνήρ, τοῦ ἀνδρός, οἱ ...
[32]
Part II: Specifics - The Center for Hellenic Studies
With the onset of psilosis (loss of spiritus asper) in East Ionic dialects, however, the initial element of ḥeth / <η> becomes viewed as ǟ (which later loses ...
[33]
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Evidence for the loss Psilosis or retention of initial aspiration comes from a number of ... Greek: a history of the language and 'foot'), a reference to his ...
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Spelling reform – a lesson from the Greeks | English Today
An important one was in 1982, when the variety of diacritic signs was reduced to a single accent. In the classical period (of Plato, Euripides etc.) the Greek ...Missing: abolition | Show results with:abolition
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The accent system of Greek was simplified in 1982, retaining only one accent and abolishing the two breathings (see endnote 3). This reform also provoked ...
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Jun 25, 2021 · This article examines the controversy over Ancient Greek [AG] as a school subject, a controversy that re-emerged in 2016, when SYRIZA was in power.
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→ 0303 $̃ combining tilde. → 0311 $̑ combining inverted breve. 0343 $̓ COMBINING GREEK KORONIS. ≡ 0313 $̓ combining comma above. 0344 $̈́ COMBINING GREEK ...
[39]
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breathing|diaeresis: U+0313 psili (smooth, comma above); U+0314 dasia (rough ... GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI + U+0301 COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT.
[40]
None
### Summary of Smooth Breathing, Psili, Koronis, U+1FBF, U+1FBD, U+1F43
[41]
https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch02.pdf