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Soul theorem

The Soul theorem is a cornerstone of Riemannian geometry, proved by Jeff Cheeger and Detlef Gromoll in 1972, stating that every complete, noncompact Riemannian manifold equipped with nonnegative sectional curvature admits a compact, totally geodesic submanifold without boundary—termed the soul—of dimension strictly less than that of the manifold, such that the manifold is diffeomorphic to the total space of the soul's normal bundle.^[1] This result generalizes earlier work on manifolds with a line or half-line, providing a precise topological decomposition that reveals the manifold's structure as a vector bundle over a compact core.^[2] The theorem's proof relies on the existence of a Busemann function—a convex function associated with rays in the manifold—whose minimum set forms the soul, ensuring the submanifold is totally convex and geodesic.^[1] Manifolds satisfying these conditions, often called nonnegatively curved open manifolds, are unified by the soul, which provides a framework for their classification.^[2] A key consequence is that the fundamental group of such manifolds is finitely generated, with the soul injecting into the manifold up to homotopy.^[3] Associated with the Soul theorem is the Soul conjecture, posed by Cheeger and Gromoll, which posits that if the soul is a single point, then the manifold is diffeomorphic to Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^n.^[2] This conjecture was affirmatively resolved by Grigori Perelman in 1994, using advanced techniques from Ricci flow and entropy functionals, marking a significant advancement in understanding positively curved structures.^[4] The theorem and its extensions have influenced subsequent research in geometric analysis, including rigidity results and applications to metric geometry, highlighting the interplay between curvature bounds and global topology.^[5]

Introduction

Statement of the theorem

The Soul theorem asserts that every complete, connected, non-compact Riemannian manifold M of dimension n with non-negative sectional curvature, denoted \sec_M \geq 0, admits a compact without boundary, connected, embedded, totally geodesic submanifold \Sigma \subset M of dimension k where $0 \leq k < n, known as the soul of M.^[6] This soul \Sigma is totally convex, meaning that any geodesic segment in M joining two points in \Sigma lies entirely within \Sigma.^[6] Furthermore, M is diffeomorphic to the total space of the normal bundle N(\Sigma) over \Sigma.^[6]

Historical development

The study of complete Riemannian manifolds with curvature bounds emerged as a central theme in differential geometry during the 1960s and 1970s, driven by efforts to understand their topological and geometric structures through tools like splitting theorems and Busemann functions. This period saw significant advances in analyzing how nonnegative or positive sectional curvatures constrain the topology, often revealing diffeomorphic or homeomorphic equivalences to simpler spaces such as Euclidean space or vector bundles over compact submanifolds.^[7] A key precursor to the Soul theorem was the result of Detlef Gromoll and Wolfgang Meyer in 1969, which addressed complete open manifolds with positive sectional curvature. They proved that such manifolds are diffeomorphic to Euclidean space, implying that the soul—a compact totally geodesic submanifold—degenerates to a single point, corresponding to the minimum of a Busemann function associated with a geodesic ray. This finding highlighted the rigidifying effect of strict positivity on manifold structure and set the stage for broader investigations into weaker curvature conditions. Jeff Cheeger and Detlef Gromoll extended this work to the case of nonnegative sectional curvature, first announcing the core result in 1968. In their seminal 1972 paper, they formulated and proved the Soul theorem, establishing that every complete noncompact manifold of nonnegative sectional curvature contains a compact totally geodesic submanifold, called the soul, to which the manifold is diffeomorphic via the total space of its normal bundle. This achievement built directly on the positive curvature case while resolving longstanding questions about the topology of nonnegatively curved spaces, influencing subsequent developments in manifold decomposition and rigidity.^[8]

Prerequisites

Riemannian geometry basics

A Riemannian manifold is a smooth manifold M equipped with a Riemannian metric g, which assigns to each point p \in M a positive-definite inner product g_p on the tangent space T_p M, varying smoothly over M. This metric tensor enables the definition of lengths of curves, angles between tangent vectors, and volumes on the manifold, generalizing the notions from Euclidean space to curved spaces.^[9] On a Riemannian manifold (M, g), geodesics are the analogs of straight lines in Euclidean space, representing locally shortest paths between points. They are curves \gamma: I \to M satisfying the geodesic equation \nabla_{\dot{\gamma}} \dot{\gamma} = 0, where \nabla is the Levi-Civita connection, the unique torsion-free connection compatible with the metric that parallels transports tangent vectors along curves while preserving the metric. This connection is uniquely determined by the Koszul formula, ensuring metric compatibility \nabla g = 0 and symmetry \nabla_X Y - \nabla_Y X = [X, Y] for vector fields X, Y.^[10] A Riemannian manifold is complete if its metric space structure—induced by the distance function d(x, y) = \inf \{\ell(\gamma) \mid \gamma \text{ connecting } x \text{ to } y \}, where \ell is arc length—ensures every Cauchy sequence converges to a point in M. The Hopf–Rinow theorem establishes that for a connected Riemannian manifold, completeness is equivalent to geodesic completeness (every geodesic ray extends indefinitely) and implies that closed and bounded subsets are compact, allowing minimization of lengths over compact sets.^[11] Non-compact Riemannian manifolds lack the compactness property, meaning they admit open covers without finite subcovers, often manifesting as infinite extent, unbounded diameter, or multiple "ends" where the space extends indefinitely in certain directions. Such manifolds are central to the study of complete spaces with nonnegative curvature, as addressed in the Soul theorem.^[12]

Sectional curvature and complete manifolds

In Riemannian geometry, the sectional curvature of a manifold at a point p measures the intrinsic curvature of 2-dimensional subspaces of the tangent space T_p M. Specifically, for a 2-plane P \subset T_p M spanned by orthonormal vectors X, Y \in T_p M, the sectional curvature K(P) is defined as K(P) = \langle R(X, Y) Y, X \rangle, where R is the Riemann curvature tensor.^[9] This quantity coincides with the Gaussian curvature of the geodesic surface obtained by exponentiating P near p, providing a pointwise measure of how the manifold deviates from flat Euclidean geometry.^[13] A manifold M has non-negative sectional curvature, denoted \sec M \geq 0, if K(P) \geq 0 for every point p \in M and every 2-plane P \subset T_p M. Manifolds with \sec M \geq 0 exhibit several key geometric properties that facilitate global analysis. Notably, such manifolds have no conjugate points along any geodesic, implying the absence of focal points and ensuring that small geodesic balls are strongly convex.^[7] This convexity arises because the second fundamental form of the boundary of such balls is non-negative, preventing geodesics from focusing inward. Comparison theorems further quantify these effects: the Rauch comparison theorem states that if \sec M \leq k and \sec M_0 = k for a model space M_0 of constant curvature k, then the length of Jacobi fields along geodesics in M grows at least as fast as in M_0, leading to estimates on distances between geodesics.^[14] For \sec M \geq 0, comparing to the Euclidean model (k=0) yields that geodesic balls expand no faster than in flat space, with implications for volume growth via the Bishop-Gromov inequality. The Toponogov comparison theorem complements this by providing triangle comparisons: in a geodesic triangle in M with \sec M \geq 0, the side lengths are at most those of the comparison triangle in Euclidean space with the same angles, and conversely for angles, enabling bounds on volumes of subdomains.^[15] Complete non-compact Riemannian manifolds with \sec M \geq 0 possess a rich end structure, characterized by the existence of infinite geodesic rays emanating from any point. These manifolds are proper metric spaces, meaning closed bounded sets are compact, and they admit a exhaustion by compact convex subsets whose boundaries form level sets of distance functions to the "soul."^[7] Every such manifold supports lines (bi-infinite geodesics) or rays without bound, reflecting the non-focusing behavior of geodesics under non-negative curvature. This contrasts sharply with the Cartan-Hadamard theorem, which asserts that a complete simply-connected manifold with non-positive sectional curvature (\sec M \leq 0) is diffeomorphic to \mathbb{R}^n via the exponential map, yielding a globally hyperbolic-like structure.^[9] In the non-negative case, however, the topology is more constrained, often featuring a compact core with Euclidean-like rays extending to infinity, as later formalized in the Soul theorem.

The Soul Theorem

Existence of the soul

The existence of the soul submanifold in a complete, noncompact Riemannian manifold M^n of nonnegative sectional curvature is established through the construction involving Busemann functions associated with geodesic rays. A geodesic ray \gamma: [0, \infty) \to M is an isometric embedding starting from an arbitrary point in M. The Busemann function b_\gamma: M \to \mathbb{R} for such a ray is defined as

b_\gamma(x) = \lim_{t \to \infty} \left( d(x, \gamma(t)) - t \right),

where d denotes the Riemannian distance function; this limit exists and is finite due to the nonnegative curvature, making b_\gamma a convex, 1-Lipschitz function on M. The function b_\gamma achieves its global minimum on a nonempty set \Sigma \subset M, which is compact and connected. Moreover, \Sigma is a submanifold of dimension k with $0 \leq k < n. This minimum set \Sigma serves as the soul when k is minimal in the sense of the theorem's construction. The submanifold \Sigma possesses the totally convex property: it is the intersection of all horospheres \{ x \in M \mid b_\gamma(x) \leq c \} for c equal to the minimum value of b_\gamma, and each such horosphere is a convex hypersurface in M. This convexity ensures that \Sigma is geodesically convex, meaning any geodesic segment joining two points in \Sigma lies entirely within \Sigma. The construction proceeds by selecting a ray whose Busemann function's minimum set has no boundary; if a boundary exists, further rays from boundary points yield nested totally convex sets of lower dimension until a boundaryless soul is obtained.

Properties of the soul

The soul \Sigma of a complete open Riemannian manifold M^n with nonnegative sectional curvature is a compact, connected, totally geodesic submanifold without boundary. The induced metric on \Sigma inherits nonnegative sectional curvature from M, as the embedding of \Sigma is totally geodesic, ensuring that the sectional curvatures for tangent planes to \Sigma match those in M via the Gauss equation, while the vanishing second fundamental form preserves this property. As a minimal totally convex set in M, \Sigma is strongly convex: every geodesic segment in M joining two points of \Sigma lies entirely within \Sigma, and the exponential map from the normal bundle covers M without focal points along \Sigma. The soul is not unique; the construction depends on the choice of a base point in M, potentially yielding different submanifolds, but any two souls of M are isometric, connected by an isometry induced by the Sharafutdinov retraction, a distance-nonincreasing map from M onto each soul.^[16] The fibers of the normal bundle over \Sigma are Euclidean spaces \mathbb{R}^{n-k}, where k = \dim \Sigma, reflecting the flat structure orthogonal to \Sigma in the decomposition of M.

Diffeomorphism to the normal bundle

The normal bundle N(\Sigma) of the soul \Sigma in the complete open Riemannian manifold M of nonnegative sectional curvature is a vector bundle over the compact totally geodesic submanifold \Sigma, with fibers diffeomorphic to \mathbb{R}^{n-k}, where n = \dim M and k = \dim \Sigma.^[1] This bundle captures the topological structure extending from \Sigma to the entire manifold M, reflecting the infinite extent in the normal directions due to the absence of conjugate points along normal geodesics. A key result establishes a homeomorphism between M and the total space of N(\Sigma), achieved by Cheeger and Gromoll in their foundational work on the structure of such manifolds.^[1] This homeomorphism arises from the geometry of the exponential map, which projects points in M onto \Sigma via minimizing geodesics and assigns coordinates in the normal fibers based on distances and directions perpendicular to \Sigma.^[1] The fibers of this map correspond to rays along geodesics orthogonal to \Sigma, each extending to infinite length without focal points, ensuring the homeomorphism covers the entire noncompact structure of M. The homeomorphism was upgraded to a diffeomorphism by Poor, who utilized the regularity properties of the squared distance function to the soul to prove smoothness. Specifically, the diffeomorphism \phi: M \to N(\Sigma) is constructed such that for each point p \in M, \phi(p) lies in the normal fiber over the closest point on \Sigma, with the mapping along these perpendicular geodesics preserving the smooth structure. This diffeomorphism highlights the smooth equivalence between M and its "skeletal" normal bundle over the soul, providing a canonical model for the manifold's topology and geometry.

Proof Outline

Busemann functions and geodesic rays

In a complete Riemannian manifold M with nonnegative sectional curvature, geodesic rays play a central role in analyzing the asymptotic structure. A geodesic ray is a map \gamma: [0, \infty) \to M that is a geodesic parameterized by arc length, meaning it minimizes distances between any two points on its image and extends infinitely without bound. Due to the completeness of M and the nonnegative sectional curvature, such rays exist starting from any point in M: consider a sequence of points p_n with d(p, p_n) \to \infty, where p \in M; the corresponding unit-speed minimizing geodesics from p to p_n form a precompact set in the space of curves by the Arzela-Ascoli theorem, yielding a limiting geodesic ray upon passing to a convergent subsequence.^[1] Associated to each geodesic ray \gamma, the Busemann function b_\gamma: M \to \mathbb{R} is defined by

b_\gamma(x) = \lim_{t \to \infty} \left[ d(x, \gamma(t)) - t \right],

where the limit exists and is finite for all x \in M. This function captures the asymptotic behavior of distances along the ray, effectively renormalizing the distance to points at infinity. In manifolds of nonnegative sectional curvature, b_\gamma is convex and 1-Lipschitz, satisfying |b_\gamma(x) - b_\gamma(y)| \leq d(x, y) for all x, y \in M, which follows from the triangle inequality and the limiting process.^[1] Key properties of the Busemann function include the fact that its gradient satisfies \|\nabla b_\gamma\| \leq 1 almost everywhere, reflecting its Lipschitz continuity and the geometry of rays. The level sets \{x \in M \mid b_\gamma(x) = c\} for constant c are called horospheres, which are smooth hypersurfaces (away from critical points) and inherit convexity properties from b_\gamma. These horospheres foliate the ends of M, providing a natural stratification that helps identify the topological and geometric structure at infinity.^[1] Busemann functions thus serve as analytic tools to probe the ends of M, distinguishing directions toward infinity and enabling the construction of exhaustion functions in the proof of structural theorems for noncompact manifolds.^[1]

Height function and level sets

To construct the soul, consider a fixed base point p \in M and define the function f: M \to \mathbb{R} by f(x) = \inf \{ b_\gamma(x) \mid \gamma is a geodesic ray starting at p \}. In manifolds with nonnegative sectional curvature, f is a concave C^1-function (up to sets of measure zero) that serves as an exhaustion function, with compact superlevel sets \{ x \in M \mid f(x) \geq a \} being totally convex for appropriate a. The height function is then taken as h = -f, which is convex and attains its minimum on a compact totally convex set C, from which the soul \Sigma is obtained by iteration: define C_0 = C, and recursively C_{i+1} = \{ x \in C_i \mid d(x, \partial C_i) is maximal \}; this process terminates after finitely many steps at the soul \Sigma, a compact totally geodesic submanifold without boundary.^[1]^[17] The level sets of the height function are L_c = \{ x \in M \mid h(x) = c \} for c > 0. These sets form a foliation of M \setminus \Sigma by smooth, totally convex hypersurfaces that inherit nonnegative sectional curvature from M. Near the soul, the level sets are diffeomorphic to \Sigma, but as c increases, they evolve, potentially developing singularities at focal points along normal geodesics to \Sigma. At initial singularities, the topology of L_c changes to \Sigma \times S^{n-k-1}, reflecting the boundary of the tubular neighborhood in the normal bundle.^[1] The gradient flow of h, \frac{d}{dt} \phi(t, x) = \nabla h(\phi(t, x)) with \phi(0, x) = x, generates unit-speed geodesics orthogonal to the level sets L_c, which remain disjoint due to the convexity of h and nonnegative curvature. This flow establishes a diffeomorphism between M and the total space of the normal bundle \nu \Sigma, mapping points on L_c to distance c in normal directions over \Sigma. Singularities occur at finite height determined by the injectivity radius of the normal exponential map, and beyond, the structure resolves as normal disks over the soul, confirming the theorem.^[1]

The Soul Conjecture

Conjecture statement

In 1972, Jeff Cheeger and Detlef Gromoll formulated the Soul conjecture as part of their work on the structure of complete Riemannian manifolds with nonnegative sectional curvature. The conjecture states that if such a manifold M has positive Ricci curvature at one point, then M is diffeomorphic to Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^n, implying that the soul \Sigma—a compact, totally geodesic submanifold guaranteed by the Soul theorem—is a single point.^[4]^[3] This provides a rigidity result under a weaker positivity condition than uniform positive sectional curvature, with implications for the topological classification of such manifolds, including that they split as products only in the Euclidean case.^[3] The conjecture was proposed alongside the Soul theorem and remained open until its resolution in 1994.^[4]

Perelman's proof overview

Grigori Perelman resolved the Soul conjecture in 1994 with a concise proof published in the Journal of Differential Geometry, spanning just four pages. The conjecture posits that a complete open Riemannian manifold M with nonnegative sectional curvature and positive Ricci curvature at one point has a soul that is a single point, making M diffeomorphic to \mathbb{R}^n. Perelman's proof establishes this by showing that the positivity condition forces the soul to have dimension zero.^[4] Central to the proof is the height function defined via the Busemann function associated with rays, whose level sets help analyze the structure toward the soul. Perelman introduces non-collapsing estimates to prevent volume degeneration in balls of controlled radius and injectivity radius bounds to ensure geodesics remain minimizing. These tools demonstrate that level sets do not collapse and avoid flat factors until reaching a point soul, confirming the diffeomorphism to \mathbb{R}^n. The approach previews techniques later used in Ricci flow, such as entropy functionals.^[4]^[18] Perelman extended these ideas to Alexandrov spaces with curvature bounded below in a follow-up paper. This resolution of the 22-year-old conjecture advanced geometric analysis, influencing rigidity theorems and metric geometry.^[18]

Examples

Euclidean space

The Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^n endowed with the standard Euclidean metric exemplifies a complete, non-compact Riemannian manifold with non-negative sectional curvature, where the sectional curvature vanishes identically throughout. This flat metric ensures the space satisfies the hypotheses of the soul theorem, as established by Cheeger and Gromoll.^[6] In \mathbb{R}^n, any singleton \Sigma = \{p\} for p \in \mathbb{R}^n qualifies as a soul, forming a compact totally geodesic submanifold of dimension zero. The normal bundle N(\Sigma) over this point soul is canonically diffeomorphic to \mathbb{R}^n itself, with the soul theorem's diffeomorphism manifesting as the identity map that identifies the manifold with its own normal bundle.^[6] Busemann functions on \mathbb{R}^n, constructed from geodesic rays \gamma(t) = p + t v with \|v\| = 1, take the explicit affine form b_\gamma(x) = -\langle x - p, v \rangle, which is unbounded below in the flat case. The level sets are hyperplanes, illustrating the degeneracy where any point serves as a soul.^[6] The structure extends to any complete, non-compact Riemannian manifold of zero sectional curvature, which admits a soul that is a single point and is thus diffeomorphic to \mathbb{R}^n via the normal bundle construction.^[6]

Paraboloid and cylinder

A concrete example of a complete Riemannian manifold with nonnegative sectional curvature is the paraboloid surface M = \{(x, y, z) \in \mathbb{R}^3 \mid z = x^2 + y^2\} equipped with the metric induced from the Euclidean metric on \mathbb{R}^3. This surface has nonnegative Gaussian curvature K = \frac{4}{(1 + 4z)^2} \geq 0, which coincides with its sectional curvature as a 2-dimensional manifold. The soul of this manifold is the unique vertex point at the origin (0,0,0), a compact totally geodesic submanifold of dimension k=0. By the soul theorem, M is diffeomorphic to the normal bundle of this soul, which consists of rays emanating from the origin, illustrating how the manifold extends infinitely in the normal directions.^[6] Another example is the infinite cylinder M = S^1 \times \mathbb{R} endowed with the product metric, where S^1 has its standard metric of constant curvature 1 and \mathbb{R} is flat. This metric yields nonnegative sectional curvature \sec \geq 0, with vanishing curvature in the \mathbb{R}-direction.^[19] Here, any circle S^1 \times \{t\} for fixed t \in \mathbb{R} serves as a soul, a compact totally geodesic submanifold of dimension k=1, though the choice is not unique; all such souls are isometric. The diffeomorphism to the normal bundle of the soul takes the form S^1 \times \mathbb{R}, with the \mathbb{R}-fibers representing the infinite extent perpendicular to the soul circles.^[6] These examples highlight non-trivial souls in curved settings: the paraboloid demonstrates a point soul amid positive curvature, while the cylinder exhibits a 1-dimensional soul with flat directions, both underscoring the role of normal bundles in describing the unbounded geometry of nonnegative curvature manifolds.

Generalizations and Extensions

Alexandrov spaces

Alexandrov spaces are metric spaces that generalize Riemannian manifolds by imposing curvature bounds in a comparison sense, without requiring a smooth structure. Specifically, an n-dimensional Alexandrov space with curvature bounded below by \kappa \in \mathbb{R} is a complete length metric space where, for every point p and sufficiently small r > 0, the space of directions at p is an (n-1)-dimensional spherical Alexandrov space with curvature at least \kappa, ensuring that geodesic triangles are "thinner" than their Euclidean or spherical/hyperbolic comparisons. This framework allows the study of singular spaces, such as polyhedra or quotients of manifolds, while preserving key geometric properties like convexity and angle measurements. An analog of the Soul theorem holds for complete, non-compact Alexandrov spaces of nonnegative curvature. In such an n-dimensional space X, there exists a compact, totally convex subset \Sigma \subset X, called the soul, such that the nearest-point projection \pi: X \to \Sigma is a retraction, and X deformation retracts onto \Sigma. This result, established by Perelman, relies on constructing Busemann functions and analyzing their level sets using angle comparisons rather than differential equations, adapting the Riemannian approach to the metric setting. Unlike in the smooth case, the soul may have singularities, but it remains a core subspace enabling the decomposition of X.^[20] The Soul conjecture in the Alexandrov setting posits that if an Alexandrov space has nonnegative curvature and strictly positive curvature in a neighborhood of some point, then its soul is a single point. The conjecture in dimension 3 was proved by Shioya and Yamaguchi, showing that the soul of a 3-dimensional complete non-compact Alexandrov space with curvature \geq 0 and positive curvature at an interior point must be 0-dimensional.^[21] More recently, the conjecture was established in dimension 4 by Rong and Wang, who demonstrated that under the same assumptions, the soul of a 4-dimensional space is also a point, using techniques involving concavity of distance functions and non-increasing flows. These low-dimensional proofs highlight the challenges in higher dimensions, where singularities complicate the analysis.^[22] Key differences from the Riemannian Soul theorem arise due to the absence of a smooth structure in Alexandrov spaces. Souls are identified via minimizers of height functions defined through angle comparisons in the space of directions, rather than gradients of smooth Busemann functions, which allows handling metric singularities but requires careful control of tangent cones. This metric perspective extends the theorem to broader classes of spaces, including those with boundary points or orbifold-like features.^[20]

Recent developments and open problems

Since the early 2000s, advancements in the Soul theorem have extended its scope to singular spaces and provided streamlined proofs for the classical case. In 2022, Mathieu Wydra presented a compact proof of the original Soul theorem for complete open Riemannian manifolds with non-negative sectional curvature, emphasizing the topological structure via the height function and level sets without relying on extensive convexity arguments.^[23] Significant progress has been made in generalizing the Soul conjecture to Alexandrov spaces. In 2022, Xiaochun Rong and Yusheng Wang proved the Soul conjecture for complete non-compact 4-dimensional Alexandrov spaces with non-negative curvature: the Sharafutdinov retraction onto the soul is a submetry, and if the space has positive curvature in an open set, the soul is a point.^[22] This resolves the conjecture in dimension 4, building on previous proofs by adapting retraction and curvature estimates to the singular setting.^[24] The Double Soul conjecture, proposed by Karsten Grove, posits that a closed simply connected Riemannian manifold admitting a non-negative sectional curvature metric is homeomorphic to the double of a disk bundle over a closed non-negatively curved manifold, implying two souls related by an isometry of the base. Recent work in 2023 by David González-Álvaro and Luis Guijarro surveyed evidence for the conjecture, verifying it for cohomogeneity-one manifolds and positively curved examples. However, Jason DeVito, González-Álvaro, and Luis Guijarro constructed counterexamples to the non-simply connected variant, showing infinite families of closed non-simply connected manifolds with non-negative curvature that fail to admit such a double soul structure, while the simply connected case remains open. Open problems persist, particularly in higher-dimensional Alexandrov spaces, where the full Soul conjecture—asserting the appropriate topological structure over the soul—remains unresolved beyond dimension 4, with challenges arising from potential singularities.^[25] Rigidity questions in positive curvature settings, such as whether the soul must be a point or exhibit strict topological constraints, also lack complete answers. Additionally, connections to Ricci flow highlight Perelman's 1994 proof of the Soul conjecture, which introduced entropy-like monotonicity formulas for the Busemann function that foreshadowed his later techniques for resolving the Poincaré conjecture via Ricci flow surgery.^[26]

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