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Spectacled eider

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) is a large sea duck measuring 52 to 56 centimeters in length, native to Arctic coastal regions where it breeds on low-lying tundra near lakes and ponds in Alaska and northeastern Siberia.^[1]^[2] Adult males in breeding plumage feature a black body, white breast and back, and distinctive pale green facial patches outlined in white that resemble spectacles, while females are barred brown with similar but subdued eye markings.^[3] These diving ducks forage primarily on marine invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans during winter in the Bering Sea, with the global population estimated at around 360,000 individuals, though the Alaskan breeding segment has declined sharply to approximately 8,000–9,000 pairs.^[4]^[5] The species is federally listed as threatened in the United States due to ongoing population declines attributed to factors including habitat alteration and pollution, despite stable numbers in Russian breeding grounds.^[2]^[6]

Taxonomy

Classification and etymology

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Aves, order Anseriformes, family Anatidae, and genus Somateria.^[7] The species is one of three in the genus Somateria, which comprises typical eiders—large sea ducks adapted to Arctic and subarctic marine environments—and is distinguished from other eiders by molecular and morphological traits supporting its placement within this clade.^[8] The binomial authority is Johann Friedrich von Brandt, who described the species in 1847 based on specimens from Siberia.^[1] The genus name Somateria originates from Ancient Greek roots sōma ("body") and ērios ("woolly"), referencing the dense, wool-like down feathers harvested from eider nests for insulation, a trait shared across the genus.^[9] The specific epithet fischeri honors a German paleontologist, reflecting the species' initial designation as Fischer's eider before adoption of the common name emphasizing plumage markings.^[10] The English common name "spectacled eider" derives from the prominent white, black-rimmed facial patches on breeding males, which resemble eyeglasses or spectacles.

Description

Morphology and plumage

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) is a medium-sized sea duck measuring 50–57 cm in length, with males averaging 53 cm and females 50 cm.^[11] Adults weigh 1,275–1,750 g, with males typically around 1,500 g and females up to 1,600 g in spring prior to nesting; wingspan reaches approximately 84 cm.^[12] ^[5] Distinctive features include a relatively long, sloping forehead and a bill covered with feathers extending to the nostrils, differentiating it from other eider species.^[7] Adult males in breeding plumage exhibit striking sexual dimorphism, featuring a pale green head with a white facial patch outlined in black, resembling spectacles, a black breast and belly, white back and rump, and a bright orange bill.^[1] ^[11] The nape and sides of the neck are gray, with the crown dark and the throat white.^[13] In eclipse (non-breeding) plumage during summer molt, males resemble females but retain some white on the back.^[14] Females and immatures display cryptic, barred brown plumage overall, with buffy tones, fine dark scaling on the upperparts, and a blue-gray bill; the head is tawny with darker cap and cheek patches.^[1] ^[13] Juveniles are similar to adult females but duller, attaining full breeding plumage in their second year (females) or third year (males).^[14] Plumage molts occur annually, with males transitioning from breeding to eclipse plumage post-breeding and regaining alternate plumage by winter.^[13]

Distribution and habitat

Breeding grounds

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) breeds in three primary populations across Arctic coastal regions: the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta in western Alaska, the Arctic Coastal Plain of northern Alaska, and the Arctic coastal areas of Russia.^[15] These breeding grounds are characterized by wet tundra habitats, including coastal lowlands, river deltas, and inland tundra wetlands with interconnected ponds.^[10] Nests are typically constructed on the ground in grassy or sedge-dominated areas near shallow lakes or ponds, often within 3 meters of water, providing concealment and proximity to foraging sites.^[16] In Alaska's Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, the largest historical breeding population has experienced severe declines, with estimated breeding pairs dropping from approximately 50,000 in 1971 to fewer than 200 nests observed in surveys by 2022, reflecting a 96% reduction since the 1970s.^[17] ^[18] The Arctic Coastal Plain population in northern Alaska supports an estimated abundance of over 3,500 individuals, with breeding pair indices averaging fewer than 4,000 pairs, primarily along the coastal fringe from the Canning River to Point Barrow.^[19] ^[20] Russia's Arctic breeding grounds, encompassing areas like the Chukotka Peninsula, Indigirka River Delta, and Wrangel Island, host significant numbers, with the Indigirka Delta containing the largest known concentration of nesting spectacled eiders.^[16] These sites feature similar low-lying tundra with polygonal ponds and lagoons, essential for nesting and brood-rearing amid the short Arctic summer.^[4] Historical records indicate broader nesting distributions along Alaskan and Russian coasts, but current populations are confined to these core areas due to habitat specificity and threats like predation and disturbance.^[21]

Wintering areas

Spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri) primarily winter in the northern Bering Sea, where individuals from Alaska and Arctic Russia breeding populations converge in large concentrations.^[22] Satellite telemetry data indicate that these birds utilize open water areas associated with pack ice leads and polynyas, particularly south of St. Lawrence Island, arriving by late fall after molting and staging in coastal Alaska and Siberia.^[4]^[23] Wintering habitat is specialized marine environment characterized by dynamic ice conditions that maintain access to benthic foraging grounds rich in amphipods, such as Anonyx sarsi, which form the core of their diet during this period.^[21] Aerial surveys and tracking studies from 1996–2010 confirm high densities in these ice-edge zones of the Bering Sea, with lesser use of adjacent Chukchi Sea areas for staging prior to full winter settlement.^[14]^[24] This concentration in predictable, productive locales exposes the population to natural disturbances like shifting ice but supports energy accumulation for spring migration and breeding.^[21]

Habitat requirements

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) requires wet coastal tundra habitats for breeding, characterized by low-lying arctic and sub-arctic wetlands dominated by graminoids, sedges, and mosses, with abundant shallow ponds, lakes, and proximity to marine waters for foraging and predator evasion.^[15] Nests are constructed in grassy tussocks or sedge meadows near open water, providing concealment from predators such as arctic foxes and providing access to aquatic invertebrates essential for incubation foraging.^[10]^[25] Brood-rearing occurs in similar wetland mosaics, where ducklings exploit shallow freshwater and brackish ponds rich in insect larvae and amphipods.^[15] Winter habitat consists of lead-dominated pack ice in the northern Bering Sea, particularly around St. Lawrence and St. Matthew Islands, where polynyas and cracks in ice up to 60-80 cm thick allow access to benthic feeding grounds in waters 20-76 meters deep.^[5]^[26] These areas support dense aggregations—up to 90% of the global population—by concentrating prey like epibenthic clams and crustaceans accessible via diving through ice leads, with sea ice extent and lead formation critically influencing foraging efficiency and survival.^[27]^[26] Critical habitat designations encompass approximately 101,000 km² (39,000 square miles) of tundra wetlands on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and marine zones in Norton Sound, Ledyard Bay, and the Bering Sea, emphasizing the need for undisturbed sedge-grass mosaics and dynamic ice edges to sustain population viability.^[5]^[25] Habitat loss from erosion, permafrost thaw, or oil exploration disrupts these requirements, as the species shows strong site fidelity to traditional nesting and molting locales.^[15]

Migration

Patterns and routes

The spectacled eider undertakes long-distance migrations between its Arctic breeding grounds in Alaska and Russia and wintering areas in the northern Bering Sea. Wintering occurs primarily in pack ice south and southwest of St. Lawrence Island, where concentrations of at least 333,000 birds have been documented.^[28] ^[17] Spring migration begins in April to June, with birds staging in nearshore western Bering Sea areas before dispersing to breeding sites on the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska (including the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and North Slope) and Russia's Arctic coast. Routes involve coastal travel up to 60 kilometers offshore, passing through areas like Norton Sound and the eastern Chukchi Sea.^[14] ^[17] Post-breeding, males depart breeding areas in late June, rapidly migrating to molting sites in the Chukchi Sea within 1-5 days, while females leave in late July and may use the Beaufort Sea for up to two weeks en route. Molting occurs from June to October in coastal lagoons such as Ledyard Bay (>10,000 birds) and eastern Norton Sound (several thousand) in Alaska, and Mechigmenskiy Bay (>10,000) and the Indigirka-Kolyma delta in Russia; females from the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta primarily molt in eastern Norton Sound, whereas males from western Alaska often head to the western Bering Strait or East Siberian Sea.^[14] ^[28] ^[17] Following molt, which renders birds flightless for about three weeks until mid-November, spectacled eiders migrate offshore through the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas to wintering grounds in October to November. Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta birds post-molt in Norton Sound, while northern Alaska birds use Ledyard Bay in the eastern Chukchi Sea.^[14] ^[17]

Ecology and behavior

Diet and foraging

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) forages primarily by diving to capture benthic invertebrates, employing foot-propelled swimming underwater and swallowing prey before surfacing.^[29] In marine habitats, dives reach depths of up to 76 meters (250 feet), targeting epibenthic and infaunal organisms in areas such as pack ice leads and polynyas.^[30] ^[21] On breeding grounds, foraging shifts to shallower tundra wetlands, where birds dabble with rapid head motions or tip up to access prey in freshwater ponds and channels.^[29] The diet is dominated by marine invertebrates year-round, with bivalve mollusks—particularly clams—comprising over 80% of winter intake in the Bering Sea, alongside crustaceans, gastropods, polychaete worms, and occasional echinoderms like sea stars.^[21] ^[29] Small amounts of fish, such as sculpins and cod, supplement this in offshore waters.^[29] During the breeding season (spring and summer), consumption diversifies to include aquatic insects (e.g., caddisflies, midges, beetles, flies), insect larvae, additional crustaceans, snails, and clams, reflecting opportunistic use of freshwater prey.^[31] ^[30] Plant matter becomes more prominent inland, encompassing mosses, sedges, water milfoil, seeds (e.g., buttercup, pondweed, crowberry), berries, and graminoids.^[29] ^[21] This specialized winter reliance on clams, without switching to alternative prey when densities decline, can lead to fat reserve depletion under varying ice conditions, as eiders prioritize high-energy, hard-shelled infaunal resources over more accessible but lower-quality options.^[21] Broods, tended by females post-hatching, forage in coastal wetlands from late June to August, focusing on invertebrates to support rapid growth.^[29]

Breeding biology

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) breeds in disjunct populations along coastal tundra in western and northern Alaska and northeastern Siberia, arriving on breeding grounds from late May to early June, typically already paired from wintering areas in the Bering Sea.^[32]^[33] Nest initiation occurs in mid-June, with peak laying shortly thereafter; males remain for approximately 10 days post-arrival, actively defending paired females from intruders while females devote more time to feeding (56% vs. 18% for males) to build reserves for egg production and incubation.^[33]^[14] Females select nest sites in dispersed or semicolonial fashion on dry hummocks, small islands, peninsulas, or pond shorelines within wet tundra wetlands, preferring areas with cover from low vegetation to reduce predation risk.^[33]^[14] Nests consist of shallow scrapes lined with tundra grasses, lichens, and a thick layer of female-plucked down for insulation; construction and all subsequent reproductive duties are performed solely by females.^[16] Clutches comprise 4–6 olive-buff eggs, with mean sizes ranging from 4.0 to 5.5 across study sites such as the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (4.0–5.5 eggs, 1992–2009) and Arctic Coastal Plain (∼4.3 eggs).^[14] Eggs are laid at intervals of about one per day until completion. Incubation begins after the final egg and lasts approximately 22 days (range 20–25 days reported in some studies), conducted entirely by the female without male assistance; males depart for molting grounds 1–2 weeks after incubation starts, often by late June.^[14]^[34] Hatching is synchronous and occurs from mid-June to early July in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and early July on the Arctic Coastal Plain, producing precocial downy chicks that leave the nest within 12–36 hours to follow the female to nearby water bodies for foraging.^[33]^[14] Females provide brood care, including protection and leading to rearing areas, with low chick mortality observed from hatch (∼July 10) through mid-August in northern Alaska; broods may merge with others for communal rearing.^[33] Apparent nest success varies widely by location and year, from 6%–93% on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (Mayfield estimates 43%–93%, 1985–2009) to 31%–43% on the Arctic Coastal Plain, influenced primarily by predation from arctic foxes, gulls, and jaegers.^[33]^[14] Renesting after failure is rare due to the short Arctic breeding season.^[14] The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) maintains a mating system characterized by serial monogamy, wherein pairs form each breeding season primarily on wintering grounds through male courtship displays—such as head tossing, neck stretching, and wing-flapping—and female selection via inciting calls and movements.^[29]^[35] Pairs arrive at breeding sites together in late May or early June, with males defending females from rivals but providing limited paternal care; males typically depart shortly after egg-laying to molt at sea, leaving females to incubate clutches of 3–6 eggs alone for approximately 24 days.^[36]^[29] Post-breeding pair bonds dissolve, though pairs may reform in autumn or early winter.^[37] Outside the breeding season, spectacled eiders are gregarious, assembling into large flocks numbering in the thousands at sea, particularly in polynyas and openings amid pack ice for foraging and roosting.^[29]^[35] During migration, group sizes diminish to smaller flocks of up to 50 individuals or pairs traveling in groups of 2–3, often flying low over water.^[35]^[7] Females and young form post-breeding flocks for southward migration, while adult males segregate earlier for molting.^[29] On breeding grounds, social organization shifts to semi-colonial or dispersed nesting, with nests—built by females near ponds or tundra ridges—spaced variably but occasionally clustered closely in loose colonies at select sites.^[36]^[29] Ducklings depart the nest soon after hatching and may join crèches with those from nearby nests, though parental care remains primarily maternal until fledging at about 53 days.^[35] Subadults typically remain at sea in non-breeding flocks until maturing at 2–3 years.^[36]

Population status

Historical trends

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) underwent pronounced population declines in western Alaska during the late 20th century, with the most severe reductions occurring on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Breeding pair estimates there fell from approximately 47,740 in the early 1970s to 1,721 by 1992, equating to a reduction exceeding 96% and less than 4% of early 1970s levels overall in western Alaska.^[15]^[38] This contraction proceeded at an average annual rate of 14%, with subregional declines such as >75% at the Kashunuk River from 1969 to 1992 and 9–14% per year from 1985 to 1992.^[38]^[15] Populations breeding on Alaska's Arctic Coastal Plain, particularly the North Slope, exhibited greater stability during this period, with uncorrected estimates ranging from 7,000 to >9,000 total birds in 1993–1995 and no clear long-term downward trajectory documented prior to intensified surveys in the 1990s.^[15] Worldwide breeding pair estimates stood at around 100,000 in the early 1970s, predominantly concentrated in Alaska before the western declines shifted relative abundances toward larger Russian Arctic populations.^[15] These Alaskan trends, substantiated by aerial and ground surveys initiated or expanded post-1970s, underscored vulnerabilities in key habitats and contributed to the species' designation as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1993.^[38]^[20]

Current estimates and monitoring

The global population of the spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) is estimated at approximately 360,000 individuals, though this figure encompasses uncertainty due to sparse data from Russian breeding grounds, where the majority of birds occur, and ongoing declines in Alaskan subpopulations.^[35] In Alaska, the breeding population is estimated at around 8,000 pairs, concentrated primarily on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and Arctic Coastal Plain, but recent indices indicate lower numbers, with an Arctic Coastal Plain estimate of 5,012 indicated total birds (95% CI: 3,661–6,362) as of 2024 surveys.^[10]^[39] Russian populations are larger, with estimates of about 140,000 individuals, but lack comprehensive recent censuses, contributing to overall uncertainty in global totals, which some sources place closer to 250,000 amid suspected declines.^[10]^[40] Monitoring efforts in Alaska, led by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), involve annual aerial surveys of breeding pairs on key areas like the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and Arctic Coastal Plain, using fixed-wing aircraft to generate population indices adjusted for detection probability, with ground-truthing for validation.^[41]^[39] These surveys, conducted since 2007, track trends showing a long-term decline (growth rate λ = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.90–0.97) in Arctic Coastal Plain indices, informed by predictive demographic models that incorporate nest success and adult survival data.^[39] USGS satellite telemetry programs deploy transmitters on breeding adults to map migration routes, wintering distributions in the Bering Sea, and at-sea habitat use, providing real-time data on flock sizes via confirmatory aerial surveys.^[4] In Russia, monitoring is limited to sporadic surveys, relying on international collaboration for trend assessment, with global status evaluated by organizations like BirdLife International indicating continued declines in mature individuals.^[42] These efforts support the species' threatened status under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, emphasizing the need for integrated demographic modeling to forecast persistence amid environmental pressures.^[41]

Threats

Anthropogenic factors

Lead poisoning from ingestion of spent lead shot has historically contributed to spectacled eider mortality, particularly on breeding grounds like the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, where elevated blood lead levels have been detected in up to 25% of females and diagnosed as the cause of death in multiple individuals during the 1990s.^[43] ^[44] Despite a 1991 federal ban on lead shot for waterfowl hunting in the United States, exposure persists due to residual shot in sediments and potential illegal use, with 2022 surveys on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta indicating 24.3% of nesting females exposed at levels similar to prior decades, potentially reducing adult female survival and population resilience.^[10] ^[18] Oil and gas exploration and development in Arctic breeding and molting areas, such as Alaska's North Slope, pose risks through habitat fragmentation, disturbance during sensitive breeding periods, and potential spills that could contaminate marine foraging habitats, where cleanup is ineffective due to ice cover and remoteness.^[15] These activities have already reduced available breeding habitat in northern Alaska via exploratory wells and infrastructure, with projections indicating further impacts could exacerbate declines in the Arctic Coastal Plain population.^[45] Subsistence egg collection and incidental shooting occur at low levels on western Alaska breeding grounds, though regulatory restrictions under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act limit legal take, and few eggs are reported harvested annually.^[45] Marine contaminants, including heavy metals like cadmium, have been detected in spectacled eiders, potentially from industrial runoff or shipping, though direct population-level effects remain unquantified.^[17]

Environmental and natural factors

Predation by arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus), glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus), and common ravens (Corvus corax) constitutes a primary natural threat to spectacled eider nests and chicks on breeding grounds, with documented nest predation rates exceeding 50% in some Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta colonies during the 1990s and early 2000s. ^[46] These predators exploit the eider's ground-nesting behavior in Arctic coastal wetlands, limiting recruitment despite the species' relatively high clutch sizes of 4-6 eggs.^[10] Climate-driven changes in Bering Sea ice dynamics represent a significant environmental factor, as spectacled eiders rely on pack ice edges for winter foraging on benthic amphipods and mollusks; extended periods of dense ice cover from 1976-1996 correlated with reduced breeding population indices on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, while variable ice retreat has been associated with lower adult survival rates of approximately 70-80% in recent decades.^[47] ^[32] Shifts in sea surface temperatures and upwelling patterns have altered prey distributions, leading to carry-over effects where poor winter body condition reduces nesting propensity and clutch sizes by up to 20% in subsequent summers.^[48] Extreme weather events, including severe storms during migration, pose risks of mass mortality; for instance, post-breeding storms in the northern Bering Sea have been linked to elevated eider stranding events, though quantifying impacts remains challenging due to the species' remote range.^[10] Additionally, climate-induced wetland salinization on breeding grounds exceeds physiological tolerances in some areas, potentially reducing suitable nesting habitat by stressing vegetation and invertebrate food resources critical for brooding females.^[49]

Debates on causation

The precise causes of spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) population declines remain uncertain, with research emphasizing multiple interacting factors rather than a single dominant driver, though lead poisoning has been identified as a primary contributor in key breeding areas. In the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (Y-K Delta), where numbers fell by over 96% since the mid-1970s, modeling attributes the bulk of the decline to female exposure to lead shot accumulated in tundra wetlands from historical waterfowl hunting, resulting in elevated adult mortality rates of up to 20-30% in affected cohorts.^[18] ^[50] This anthropogenic legacy persists despite regulatory bans on lead ammunition since 1993 in many areas, as residual shot in sediments continues to pose risks during foraging and nesting.^[11] However, lead's role diminishes in explaining declines outside the Y-K Delta, such as on the Arctic Coastal Plain, where tissue analyses show lower contamination levels and populations have stabilized or slightly increased since the 1990s.^[46] Winter sea ice dynamics in the Bering Sea, where spectacled eiders concentrate from November to April, represent another focal point of contention, with evidence suggesting non-linear impacts on survival independent of lead effects. A 2018 analysis of satellite-tagged birds linked annual adult survival (estimated at 0.85-0.92) to days of extreme sea ice cover (>95% concentration), showing declines during both prolonged heavy ice (trapping birds in polynyas and increasing starvation risk) and rapid thaws (disrupting foraging access to benthic invertebrates).^[51] This pattern, corroborated by projections of habitat loss under diminishing ice trends, implies that natural variability amplified by long-term changes could drive broader population instability, particularly for juveniles with lower survival (around 0.3-0.5).^[52] Critics note that historical data pre-dating recent Arctic warming show similar ice fluctuations correlating with eider abundance, questioning whether anthropogenic climate forcing is the decisive factor or if inherent Bering Sea cycles predominate.^[18] Predation emerges in discussions as a consistent but potentially secondary influence on recruitment, debated for its capacity to explain sustained declines versus localized nest failures. Glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus) and arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) account for 70-90% of nest losses across breeding grounds, with gull predation intensified by human subsidies like nearby waste dumps.^[53] Yet, while this curtails productivity (fledging success often <0.5 ducklings per nest), compensatory mechanisms like delayed breeding or metapopulation shifts may buffer overall numbers, as evidenced by stable Arctic populations despite high predation rates.^[54] Integrated models, such as those by Petersen et al. (2016), weigh predation alongside lead and ice stressors, concluding that no single cause suffices; instead, synergies—e.g., lead-weakened adults more vulnerable to ice entrapment—likely exacerbate declines, underscoring the need for stage-specific vital rate studies.^[54]^[15] Ongoing monitoring highlights these debates, as recovery metrics prioritize delineating causation to target interventions effectively.^[46]

Conservation

Legal protections

The spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) was listed as a threatened species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) on May 10, 1993, due to significant population declines primarily in Alaska, prohibiting take, possession, sale, or transport without permits and requiring federal agencies to consult on actions potentially affecting the species.^[55] The ESA designation triggered development of a recovery plan in 1996, outlining actions to address habitat loss, human disturbance, and other threats, with special rules allowing limited incidental take under certain conditions but maintaining core protections against direct harm.^[15] Critical habitat for the species was designated on February 6, 2001, encompassing approximately 3,320 square kilometers in coastal Alaska, including lagoons and barrier islands essential for molting and brood-rearing, with prohibitions on destruction or adverse modification by federal actions.^[25] Additionally, the bird is protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which criminalizes unauthorized pursuit, hunting, wounding, killing, or possession, reinforcing ESA safeguards and applying to both U.S. and international treaty partners.^[56]^[57] Following the 1997 listing clarification that extended ESA protections to non-U.S. populations, hunting was prohibited in Alaska to aid recovery, with state and federal enforcement targeting subsistence and sport activities.^[58] The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducts periodic status reviews, such as the 2020 initiation of a five-year review, to assess whether downlisting or delisting is warranted based on population data and threat abatement.^[59]

Recovery efforts

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) finalized a recovery plan for the spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) in 1996, establishing delisting criteria centered on achieving stable or increasing populations of at least 6,000 breeding pairs over 10 years, 10,000 pairs over 3 years, or 25,000 pairs in a single year across key breeding areas in Alaska's Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (Y-K Delta), Arctic Coastal Plain (ACP), and Arctic Russia.^[15] The plan prioritizes actions to mitigate threats like habitat disturbance, lead poisoning, predation, and harvest, with implementation led by USFWS, Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), and regional teams involving Native organizations.^[15] Habitat protection efforts include mandatory Section 7 consultations under the Endangered Species Act for federal projects, enforcing 200-meter buffers around active nests during the breeding season (20 May to 1 August) to prevent disturbance from ground activities, construction, or noise.^[15] Additional measures involve mapping at-sea habitats via satellite telemetry initiated in 1995 and ground surveys prior to development in nesting areas.^[15] Threat reduction focuses on banning lead shot in refuges like the Yukon Delta since 1995 to curb ingestion-related mortality, alongside education campaigns to minimize subsistence and illegal harvest, which accounts for tens to hundreds of birds annually in Alaska.^[15]^[46] Experimental predator control, such as fox and gull management, has been evaluated to boost nest success, with tasks assigned to USFWS and partners at estimated costs of $14,000 over five years.^[15] Monitoring comprises annual aerial surveys of breeding pairs—Y-K Delta (<3,000 pairs historically) and ACP (>7,000 birds)—with visibility corrections for accuracy, supplemented by brood survival studies costing $230,000–$480,000 across regions.^[15] Satellite tracking reveals migration corridors, molting sites, and wintering grounds, aiding in-season protections.^[60] Research emphasizes demographic analysis, contaminant screening (e.g., lead, cadmium), disease assessments ($25,000 ongoing), and genetic studies to clarify population structure ($20,000).^[15] Captive flocks established in 1994 support reintroduction potential and physiological research.^[15] The 2010 five-year review documented Y-K Delta population growth (7,253 nests in 2009, annual rate 1.085 from 2000–2009), linked to reduced threats, but noted ACP declines (5,018 birds in 2009, rate 0.985 from 1993–2009) and persistent risks from oil spills, climate change, and harvest (10,000–14,000 in Russia).^[46] It recommended revising criteria beyond abundance to include threat abatement and dynamics, while maintaining threatened status.^[46] Surveys continued through 2024, with no delisting; a 2020 review initiation underscores ongoing evaluation amid stable global estimates (~301,812 birds in 2009).^[2]^[61]

Outcomes and effectiveness

Conservation efforts for the spectacled eider, initiated following its 1993 listing as threatened under the Endangered Species Act, have resulted in population stabilization and growth in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (YKD) breeding subpopulation, which met interim recovery criteria by 2019 with estimated abundances of 12,313 to 17,253 breeding birds (95% credible interval).^[62] This upturn, from approximately 3,532 nests in 2002 to 9,464 in 2016 across the broader YKD, reflects a reversal of earlier declines exceeding 96% since the mid-1970s, attributed partly to immigration rather than solely reduced threats like lead poisoning.^[41]^[15] In contrast, the Arctic Coastal Plain (ACP) subpopulation has shown limited progress, with 2019 estimates of 3,766 to 6,589 breeding birds falling short of recovery thresholds, alongside a slightly negative growth rate of approximately -0.005.^[62] The Russian breeding subpopulation remains poorly monitored but is presumed small and stable, contributing uncertainty to species-wide recovery. Aerial surveys and satellite telemetry, implemented since the mid-1990s, have proven effective for tracking distributions and informing protections, such as habitat buffers and reduced disturbance during nesting (May 20 to August 1).^[15] Measures like the 1995 lead shot phase-out on the YKD and enforcement of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, including harvest reductions, correlate with YKD gains, though persistent lead exposure in 24.3% of sampled females in 2022 indicates incomplete mitigation of this mortality driver.^[41]^[15] A 2021 Bayesian decision analysis supports reclassification potential for the YKD due to low quasi-extinction risk (threshold of 250 birds) and favorable loss functions prioritizing overprotection, yet the species retains its threatened status pending comprehensive reviews, with a 5-year status review initiated in 2020.^[62]^[59] Overall, while monitoring and regulatory actions have yielded measurable demographic improvements in core U.S. habitats, ongoing threats including sea ice variability necessitate sustained intervention for delisting under 1996 recovery plan criteria, such as sustained growth rates (r ≥ 0) and abundances exceeding 6,000 to 10,000 breeding pairs.^[15]

References

[1]
Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Spectacled eiders are large sea ducks, 52 to 56 centimeters long (20 to 22 inches). In the winter and spring, adult males are in breeding plumage.
[2]
Species Profile for Spectacled eider(Somateria fischeri) - ECOS
Spectacled eiders are large sea ducks, 52 to 56 centimeters long (20 to 22 inches). In the winter and spring, adult males are in breeding plumage.
[3]
Spectacled Eider | Audubon Field Guide
In breeding season on wet low-lying tundra with many lakes and ponds, sometimes well inland. At other seasons on ocean. May be near coastline but often far ...
[4]
Tracking Data for Spectacled Eiders (Somateria fischeri) - USGS.gov
Available here are tracking data of Spectacled Eider, a sea duck species that breeds only in Alaska and Russia and spends the winter exclusively in the ...<|separator|>
[5]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) - Sea Duck Joint Venture
Winter surveys in the Bering Sea, which include non-breeding birds, indicate a worldwide population of about. 360,000 spectacled eiders. Management and ...
[6]
Natural History: Spectacled Eider - Center for Biological Diversity
Biologists estimate that 9,000 pairs currently nest on Alaska's arctic coastal plain and at least 40,000 pairs nest in Russia. Spectacled eider photo by Olaf ...
[7]
Somateria fischeri (spectacled eider) | INFORMATION
Habitat. The breeding habitat of the spectacled eider is generally near shores, lakes, and deltas along the coast of Alaska. The ducks prefer lowland tundra ...
[8]
Systematics - Spectacled Eider - Somateria fischeri - Birds of the World
Currently classified in genus Somateria (American Ornithologists' Union ... Genus Somateria includes 3 species of large sea ducks, with Spectacled Eider ...
[9]
Somateria fischeri (Spectacled Eider) - Avibase
Photo powered by flickr.com. Classification. Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae Genus: Somateria Scientific: Somateria fischeri. Original description.
[10]
Spectacled Eider Species Profile, Alaska Department of Fish and ...
The spectacled eider was originally named Fischer's eider in honor of a German paleontologist (“Fischer” still appears in the scientific name of the species).Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[11]
Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) Species Profile
General Description. The spectacled eider is a medium-sized sea duck measuring an average 53 cm in length for males and 50 cm in length for females.Missing: taxonomy classification
[12]
Spectacled Eider Identification - All About Birds
Relative Size · Measurements. Both Sexes. Length: 19.7-20.9 in (50-53 cm); Weight: 45.0-61.7 oz (1275-1750 g); Wingspan: 33.1 in (84 cm).
[13]
Plumages, Molts, and Structure - Spectacled Eider - Somateria fischeri
Spectacle feathers dark gray, tipped white. Sides of neck medium gray; chin dull white, mixed with gray; throat white. Anterior back dark gray, tinged brownish; ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[14]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) 5-Year Review - AWS
Aug 23, 2010 · Juveniles attain breeding plumage in their second (female) or third (male) year; until then females are mottled brown and males mottled brown ...
[15]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider Recovery Plan - ECOS
Body plumage of the male Spectacled Eider most closely resembles that of the larger Common. Eider. Females of all three Somateria species have similar body ...
[16]
Nesting ecology of Spectacled Eiders <i>Somateria fischeri</i> on ...
Presently, the Indigirka River Delta contains the largest concentration of nesting Spectacled Eiders and deserves continued monitoring and conservation.
[17]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) - Sea Duck Joint Venture
In 1971, the estimated number of breeding pairs was 50,000 with up to 70,000 pairs in high productivity years (Dau and Kistchinski 1977) but by 1992, there were ...
[18]
Status of spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri) on the Yukon ...
Jul 25, 2023 · By expanding the number of nests found in 2022 using this ratio, we estimate 104 nests (95 percent confidence interval 89–124) may have been ...<|separator|>
[19]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) 5-Year Review - AWS
May 10, 1993 · Arctic Coastal Plain Breeding Population The current abundance in the ACP breeding population is estimated at more than 3,500 individuals.
[20]
Demography and Populations - Spectacled Eider - Somateria fischeri
Average number of breeding pairs was estimated to be <4,000 (W. Larned in ... Data for the ground plot index are estimates from the number of nests ...
[21]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider - Alaska Center for Conservation Science
Winter range is most restricted and is estimated at <100,00 sq. km. Population Concentration in Alaska (-10 to 10). Between 1-25 sites during fall molt, when ...
[22]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) 5-Year Review - AWS
May 10, 1993 · Satellite telemetry and aerial surveys through 2010 suggested that individuals from all three breeding populations winter together in large, ...
[23]
Somateria fischeri - NatureServe Explorer
Spectacled Eider - Natureserve Global Rank: G4: This species breeds over a large area in coastal Alaska and the arctic coast of northeastern Siberia but ...
[24]
[PDF] LATE WINTER POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ... - ECOS
Late winter distribution of spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri) in the Bering Sea, 1996-97. Unpublished report, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Anchorage ...
[25]
Final Determination of Critical Habitat for the Spectacled Eider
Feb 6, 2001 · In the winter and spring, adult male spectacled eiders are in breeding plumage with a black chest, white back, and pale green head with a long ...
[26]
[PDF] Spatiotemporal distribution and migratory patterns of Spectacled ...
2000, Lovvorn et al. 2009). In the summer months, Spectacled Eiders are divided into three breeding populations in coastal areas of western and northern Alaska ...
[27]
Startling Discovery Yields Winter Location of Mysterious Sea Ducks
May 19, 2000 · They discovered tens of thousands of the elusive ducks jammed into tiny holes in the Bering Sea pack ice, which they kept unfrozen despite minus-20-degree (F) ...
[28]
At-sea distribution of Spectacled Eiders: A 120-year-old mystery ...
Sep 8, 2021 · The at-sea distribution of the threatened Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) has remained largely undocumented. We identified migration ...Missing: routes | Show results with:routes
[29]
Spectacled Eider Life History - All About Birds
Females and young follow later. All move to the Bering Sea pack ice south of St. Lawrence Island for the winter, where they seek out large leads or breaks in ...
[30]
Spectacled Eider | Ducks Unlimited
The Alaska breeding population is estimated at 8,000 pairs, while 140,000 individual birds (as opposed to breeding pairs) were estimated in Russia. Conservation ...
[31]
Diet and Foraging - Spectacled Eider - Somateria fischeri
Food Capture And Consumption. Feeding behavior of birds at sea is unknown; assumed to dive since birds are in open water and feed on benthic and epibenthic ...Feeding · Diet · Food Selection and Storage · Nutrition and Energetics
[32]
Demographic responses to climate change in a threatened Arctic ...
Jul 14, 2021 · Spectacled eiders typically arrive on the breeding grounds in late May; males depart 1–2 weeks after incubation begins, and females and their ...
[33]
Breeding ecology of Spectacled Eiders Somateria fischeri in ...
Females spent considerably more time feeding than males (56% vs. 18%). Males travelled, rested and were alert more than females, and actively defended females ...
[34]
[PDF] Biological Opinion - Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM)
Oct 22, 2002 · 1998). Spectacled eider incubation lasts 20-25 days (Dau 1974, Kondratev and Zadorina 1992, Harwood and Moran 1993, Moran and Harwood 1994, ...
[35]
Spectacled Eider - Facts, Diet, Habitat & Pictures on Animalia.bio
The spectacled eider is slightly smaller than the common eider at 52–57 cm (20–22 inches) in length. The male is unmistakable with its black body, white back, ...Missing: measurements | Show results with:measurements
[36]
Behavior - Spectacled Eider - Somateria fischeri - Birds of the World
Walking, Hopping, Climbing, Etc ... Primarily aquatic. On breeding grounds, males and females walk short distances across land to nesting sites and roost sites.
[37]
Breeding - Spectacled Eider - Somateria fischeri - Birds of the World
Pairs break up in late Jun when males leave the breeding areas. May re-form pairs in autumn or early winter, as do Common Eiders.
[38]
Decline of spectacled eiders nesting in western Alaska
Jan 1, 1993 · ... spectacled eider biology remain unknown, including their marine foraging habitats, food items, migratory movements, and population ecology ...
[39]
[PDF] population indices, trends, and distribution of breeding waterbirds ...
Feb 21, 2025 · The report presents population indices for 33 bird species, including 29 waterbirds, from 2007-2024, with 2018-2024 survey data. The ACP is ...
[40]
Unprecedented Spectacled Eider sighting in the Netherlands
Jan 16, 2025 · The world population of Spectacled Eider is estimated at 250,000 individuals but is thought to be in considerable decline. Its restricted ...Missing: current | Show results with:current
[41]
[PDF] Status of Spectacled Eiders (Somateria fischeri) on the Yukon ...
This report focuses on the status of spectacled eiders on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta in 2022, including testing and updating predictive models.
[42]
Spectacled Eider Somateria Fischeri Species Factsheet
Note that a change in IUCN Red List category does not necessarily indicate a genuine change in the status of the species, but may simply reflect improved ...
[43]
Lead poisoning of spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri) and of a ...
Lead poisoning was diagnosed in four spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri) and one common eider (Somateria mollissima) found dead or moribund at the Yukon ...Missing: hunting | Show results with:hunting
[44]
Effect of lead poisoning on spectacled eider survival rates
We used mark-resighting techniques to study annual survival rates of adult female spectacled eiders at 2 sites on the Y-K Delta during 1993-96. Our data suggest ...Missing: hunting | Show results with:hunting
[45]
Conservation and Management - Spectacled Eider - Somateria fischeri
Effects of Human Activity. Egging. Few eggs reported taken on Yukon-Kuskokwim ... Close ) predicted that 50% of successful nesting females and 25–37% of breeding ...
[46]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) 5-Year Review - AWS
Aug 23, 2010 · Spectacled eiders are medium-sized sea ducks. Males in breeding plumage have a white back, black breast, and pale green head with large white “ ...
[47]
Winter Ecology of Spectacled Eiders: Environmental Characteristics ...
It has been hypothesized that changes in benthic fauna in the Bering Sea influenced population changes of Spectacled Eiders (Stehn et al.Missing: factors | Show results with:factors
[48]
Carry-over effects of winter conditions on nesting Somateria fischeri ...
Somateria fischeri (Spectacled Eider) winter in the Bering Sea and breed along coastal areas of Alaska and Arctic Russia.<|separator|>
[49]
Climate change and coastal wetland salinization: Physiological and ...
May 27, 2023 · In the U.S., the spectacled eider was listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) due to a greater than 95% decline in ...
[50]
[PDF] Navigating the Arctic Meltdown: Spectacled Eiders
Climate change also threatens the spectacled eider's nesting habitat. The Arctic coastal plain is dotted with innumerable small ponds and wetlands where breed- ...
[51]
Non‐linear effect of sea ice: Spectacled Eider survival declines at ...
While severe ice can impede foraging for benthic prey, ice also suppresses wave action and provides a platform on which eiders roost, thereby reducing ...
[52]
Non‐linear effect of sea ice: Spectacled Eider survival declines at ...
Nov 20, 2018 · We found that much of the variation in eider survival could be explained by the number of days per year with >95% sea ice concentration at the Bering Sea core ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[53]
Factors influencing incubation behavior and nesting success of ...
Apr 3, 2023 · Predation was the primary cause of nest failure, with glaucous gulls ... Spectacled eider monitoring at the CD-3 Development, 2007.
[54]
Effects of Lead Exposure, Environmental Conditions, and ...
Jun 22, 2016 · Accordingly, most hunting efforts are focused on geese, and lead deposition where spectacled eiders occur is likely a result of goose hunting.
[55]
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Spectacled Eider ...
Apr 7, 2010 · We originally listed the spectacled eider ( Somateria fischeri) as threatened under the Act on May 10, 1993 (58 FR 27474). For the description, ...Missing: USFWS | Show results with:USFWS
[56]
Spectacled Eider Management, Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Spectacled eiders are currently listed as a Threatened species under the Endangered Species Act and protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
[57]
50 CFR 10.13 -- List of Birds Protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
The purpose is to inform the public of the species protected by regulations that enforce the terms of the MBTA.
[58]
Steller's & Spectacled Eiders - The North Slope Borough
It is illegal to use lead shot on the North Slope for hunting migratory birds. Lead is an environmental contaminant and the shot can be eaten by birds resulting ...
[59]
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Initiation of 5-Year ...
Aug 31, 2020 · We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), are initiating a 5-year status review of the spectacled eider ( Somateria fischeri) ( printed ...Missing: USFWS | Show results with:USFWS
[60]
https://alaska.usgs.gov/science/biology/seaducks/spei/index.php
[61]
Eider Surveys (1994-2024) - Datasets - North Slope Science Catalog
Feb 20, 2019 · Spectacled Eiders (Somateria fisheri) population status on the North Slope is being monitored in support of the population recovery effort.<|control11|><|separator|>
[62]
Assessing recovery of spectacled eiders using a Bayesian decision ...
Jul 1, 2021 · There are multiple criteria set for assessing spectacled eider status, and here we focus on the abundance and decision analysis criteria.