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Splanchnic

Splanchnic is an adjective derived from the Greek splanchna, meaning "viscera" or internal organs, and refers to structures or functions pertaining to the abdominal and pelvic viscera in anatomy and physiology.^[1] The term is commonly applied to the autonomic nervous system components that innervate these organs, as well as the vascular supply that sustains their metabolic demands.^[2]^[3] In the context of the autonomic nervous system, splanchnic nerves are paired preganglionic nerves that originate from the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral spinal cord levels, carrying sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers to regulate visceral functions such as digestion, glandular secretion, and blood flow.^[2] These include the greater, lesser, and least (or lowest) thoracic splanchnic nerves (from T5–T12), lumbar splanchnic nerves (from L1–L4), and pelvic splanchnic nerves (from S2–S4, also known as nervi erigentes); the sympathetic thoracic and lumbar nerves synapse in prevertebral ganglia like the celiac and superior mesenteric, while the parasympathetic pelvic nerves synapse in pelvic plexuses or organ walls, before distributing to organs of the foregut, midgut, and hindgut.^[2] They transmit both visceral efferent motor signals for organ control and visceral afferent sensory signals for pain and reflex responses.^[2] The splanchnic circulation denotes the parallel arrangement of blood vessels supplying the gastric, small intestinal, colonic, pancreatic, hepatic, and splenic regions, accounting for approximately 25% of cardiac output at rest and increasing during digestion to support nutrient absorption and metabolic activity.^[3] This circulation is fed primarily by the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery, with venous drainage converging into the portal vein for hepatic processing.^[3] Dysregulation of splanchnic circulation can lead to conditions like ischemia or portal hypertension, highlighting its critical role in systemic homeostasis.^[3]

Definition and Etymology

Definition

In anatomy and medicine, "splanchnic" is an adjective that refers to the viscera, or internal organs, primarily those within the abdominal cavity, including the gastrointestinal tract, liver, spleen, pancreas, and associated structures such as the gallbladder and mesentery.^[1]^[4] The term encompasses the organs of the abdominal and pelvic regions, notably the stomach, small and large intestines, liver, spleen, and pancreas, along with their blood supply from arteries like the celiac trunk and mesenteric arteries, and their innervation via autonomic nerves.^[4]^[5] Common usages include "splanchnic tissue," denoting the visceral tissues of these organs, and "splanchnic bed," describing the extensive vascular network that supplies and drains blood to and from the abdominal viscera.^[4] The term entered anatomical nomenclature in the late 17th century, with early documented use around 1679 in medical texts to describe structures related to the internal organs.^[6]^[7]

Etymology

The term "splanchnic" originates from the Ancient Greek word σπλάγχνα (splánkhna), the plural form denoting "viscera," "entrails," or "innards," referring to the internal organs of the body, particularly those in the abdominal cavity.^[7]^[1] This root is closely related to σπλήν (splḗn), meaning "spleen," highlighting its connection to the body's noble or vital organs as opposed to more superficial structures.^[7]^[8] In Greek usage, σπλάγχνα carried both literal anatomical connotations and metaphorical ones, evoking the seat of deep emotions or compassion due to the perceived centrality of these organs to life and feeling.^[9] The word entered scientific and medical Latin as splanchnicus, derived from the Greek adjective σπλαγχνικός (splanchnikos), meaning "pertaining to the viscera."^[1]^[8] Its first recorded use in English dates to 1679, in the work Pharmaceutice Rationalis by English physician Thomas Willis, where it described aspects of the body's internal functions related to the viscera.^[6] Broader adoption followed in the late 17th century, with appearances in anatomical texts by the 1680s and 1690s, reflecting the era's growing interest in visceral anatomy during the scientific revolution.^[7]^[1] Over time, the term evolved through the prefix splanchno-, which combines with other roots to denote visceral relations, as seen in splanchnology (the study of the viscera, first attested in 1706)^[10] and splanchnopleure (the visceral layer of embryonic mesoderm, from the 1870s).^[11] This prefix retains the Greek sense of viscera while extending metaphorically to concepts like "visceral compassion" in psychological or emotional contexts since the late 19th century.^[9]

Splanchnic Nerves

Thoracic Splanchnic Nerves

The thoracic splanchnic nerves comprise three pairs of preganglionic sympathetic nerves—greater, lesser, and least—that originate from the thoracic sympathetic trunk and provide autonomic innervation to the abdominal viscera.^[2] These nerves carry efferent fibers from the intermediolateral cell column of the spinal cord, exiting via the ventral roots of the corresponding thoracic spinal nerves before joining the sympathetic chain.^[12] The greater splanchnic nerve arises from the sympathetic trunk at levels T5 to T9, typically receiving contributions from multiple ganglia, while the lesser splanchnic nerve emerges from T10 to T11, and the least splanchnic nerve from T12.^[2] These nerves course anteriorly from the sympathetic trunk, passing over the vertebral column and adrenal glands without synapsing in the paravertebral ganglia.^[12] They then penetrate the diaphragm, often via the crura or the aortic hiatus, to reach the prevertebral sympathetic ganglia in the abdomen: the greater nerve primarily synapses in the celiac ganglia, the lesser in the celiac, superior mesenteric, and aorticorenal ganglia, and the least mainly in the aorticorenal and renal ganglia.^[2] Postganglionic fibers from these synapses distribute via perivascular plexuses along the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries to innervate the foregut and midgut derivatives.^[12] Functionally, the thoracic splanchnic nerves mediate sympathetic effects on the abdominal organs, including the stomach, liver, pancreas, spleen, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and proximal colon.^[2] They inhibit gastrointestinal motility and secretion in the foregut (via the greater nerve) and midgut (via the lesser nerve), while also providing vasomotor control to splanchnic vessels, promoting vasoconstriction during stress responses.^[12] The least nerve contributes to renal vasoregulation, reducing blood flow under sympathetic activation.^[2] Additionally, these nerves transmit visceral afferent fibers involved in pain sensation from the upper abdominal viscera.^[12] Anatomical variations are common among the thoracic splanchnic nerves, particularly in their origins and presence. The greater nerve's origin can range from T4 to T11, with asymmetry between sides in up to 30% of cases.^[12] The lesser and least nerves show higher variability, with the least nerve absent unilaterally or bilaterally in 20-43% of specimens across studies, and occasional fusion of the lesser and least into a single trunk observed in some individuals.^[13]^[14] Such variations, reported in cadaveric dissections, underscore the need for imaging confirmation in clinical procedures like splanchnic nerve blocks.^[13]

Lumbar and Sacral Splanchnic Nerves

The lumbar splanchnic nerves are paired sympathetic preganglionic fibers that typically arise from the upper lumbar sympathetic trunk, originating from levels L1 and L2, though they may extend to L3 and L4 in some cases.^[2] These nerves number two to four pairs per side, with variations including asymmetry between left and right sides, where the left often shows a higher incidence of additional nerves.^[15] They course anteriorly from the lumbar sympathetic ganglia, traveling medially and inferiorly to join the intermesenteric plexus and the superior hypogastric plexus near the aortic bifurcation, synapsing in preaortic or hypogastric ganglia along the way.^[2] In approximately 85% of cases, some lumbar splanchnic nerves take a retroaortic path, passing between the aorta and left common iliac vein before reaching the plexuses.^[15] The sacral splanchnic nerves, also sympathetic preganglionic in nature, emerge from the sacral sympathetic trunk, primarily from ganglia at levels S1 through S4, forming up to four pairs bilaterally.^[16] These nerves course ventromedially from the sacral ganglia, directly entering the inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus without extensive preaortic involvement, where they synapse in scattered pelvic ganglia.^[2] They are often fewer and more variable in number compared to lumbar nerves, with some individuals exhibiting only one or two pairs per side due to fusion or absence of certain rami.^[2] Both lumbar and sacral splanchnic nerves provide sympathetic innervation to the hindgut, including the distal colon and rectum, as well as pelvic organs such as the bladder and reproductive structures.^[17] Their postganglionic fibers mediate vasoconstriction in pelvic vessels, inhibit smooth muscle contraction in the detrusor muscle of the bladder and hindgut wall to promote storage, and regulate glandular secretions.^[2] In males, these nerves specifically contribute to contraction of the vas deferens and seminal vesicles during ejaculation, facilitating reproductive function.^[17] Clinical variations, such as asymmetric lumbar nerve counts or reduced sacral contributions, can influence susceptibility to autonomic dysfunction in pelvic surgeries but do not typically alter baseline physiology.^[15]

Splanchnic Circulation

Anatomy of Splanchnic Vessels

The splanchnic vessels encompass the arterial and venous networks that supply blood to the abdominal viscera, including the gastrointestinal tract, liver, spleen, and pancreas. These vessels form a specialized vascular bed that supports nutrient absorption, organ function, and metabolic processing in the abdomen. The arterial supply originates from three primary unpaired branches of the abdominal aorta, while venous drainage converges into the portal system for hepatic processing before returning to the systemic circulation.^[18] The arterial supply to the splanchnic region is divided according to the embryological divisions of the gut. The celiac trunk, arising from the anterior abdominal aorta at the level of T12, provides blood to the foregut structures, including the distal esophagus, stomach, liver, spleen, proximal duodenum, and pancreas. Its main branches are the left gastric artery, common hepatic artery (which gives rise to the proper hepatic, gastroduodenal, and right gastric arteries), and splenic artery. The superior mesenteric artery (SMA), originating just below the celiac trunk at L1, supplies the midgut, encompassing the distal duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon. Its branches include the inferior pancreaticoduodenal, jejunal, ileal, ileocolic, right colic, and middle colic arteries. The inferior mesenteric artery (IMA), emerging from the aorta at L3, perfuses the hindgut, consisting of the distal third of the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and upper rectum. Key branches are the left colic, sigmoid, and superior rectal arteries.^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22] Venous drainage from the splanchnic bed follows a parallel distribution and collects into the portal vein system, which delivers nutrient-rich blood directly to the liver. The portal vein forms posterior to the pancreatic neck by the confluence of the superior mesenteric vein (draining the midgut and pancreas) and the splenic vein (draining the spleen, stomach, and pancreas). The inferior mesenteric vein, which drains the hindgut, typically joins the splenic vein but can variably empty into the superior mesenteric or portal vein directly. Additional tributaries include the left and right gastric veins, cystic vein, and pancreaticoduodenal veins, ensuring comprehensive collection from the foregut and midgut regions before hepatic passage.^[18]^[23]^[24] The splanchnic vascular bed serves as a major capacitance reservoir, accommodating approximately 20-25% of the total blood volume under normal conditions, which allows for dynamic adjustments in systemic circulation. This reservoir function is primarily venous, with the splanchnic veins holding a significant portion of circulating blood to buffer changes in venous return.^[25]^[26]^[27] Collateral circulation within the splanchnic arteries is facilitated by key anastomoses that provide alternative pathways in cases of occlusion. The marginal artery of Drummond, an arcade running parallel to the colon along the mesenteric border, connects branches of the SMA (middle colic artery) and IMA (left colic artery), ensuring continuity of supply to the large intestine, particularly at the splenic flexure where the anastomosis may be weaker. The arc of Riolan, a more direct meandering vessel, links the proximal SMA (via the middle colic artery) to the proximal IMA (via the left colic artery), serving as a critical collateral in the central mesenteric region. These anastomoses enhance vascular redundancy in the splanchnic bed.^[28]^[29]^[30]

Physiology of Splanchnic Blood Flow

The splanchnic circulation receives approximately 25-30% of the total cardiac output under resting conditions, corresponding to a baseline blood flow of about 1.5-2 L/min in adults, which supports essential functions such as nutrient absorption, metabolic waste removal, and glandular secretion in the gastrointestinal tract, liver, pancreas, and spleen.^[31]^[32] This substantial allocation reflects the high metabolic demands of these organs, with flow distributed primarily via the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery, enabling efficient delivery of oxygen and nutrients despite the low-pressure portal venous system.^[31] Regulation of splanchnic blood flow involves a balance of neural, hormonal, and local metabolic mechanisms to adapt to physiological needs. Sympathetic activation via splanchnic nerves induces vasoconstriction through α-adrenergic receptors, reducing flow by up to 50% during stress or hemorrhage to prioritize blood supply to vital organs like the brain and heart.^[31]^[33] Conversely, postprandial vasodilation occurs due to local release of metabolites such as adenosine, CO₂, and peptides from nutrient digestion, increasing flow by 30-100% to facilitate absorption without compromising systemic pressure.^[31]^[34] The splanchnic bed serves as a major vascular reservoir, holding 20-30% of total blood volume, which can be mobilized through autoregulation and hormonal influences to maintain systemic circulation. Autoregulation maintains relatively constant flow across a range of perfusion pressures (60-120 mmHg) via myogenic responses in arterioles and precapillary sphincters.^[31]^[35] Hormones like angiotensin II promote vasoconstriction, enhancing resistance to redirect blood centrally during hypovolemia.^[36] This dynamic control is governed by vascular resistance, described by the equation

R = \frac{\Delta P}{Q}

where R is resistance, \Delta P is the pressure gradient across the bed, and Q is flow; neural and hormonal inputs modulate R to stabilize Q despite fluctuating \Delta P.^[37]^[31]

Clinical Significance

Disorders of Splanchnic Nerves

Disorders of the splanchnic nerves encompass a range of pathological conditions resulting from dysfunction, injury, or disruption of these sympathetic pathways, leading to autonomic imbalances that primarily affect visceral functions. One key therapeutic intervention involves splanchnic nerve blocks, which are employed to manage severe chronic abdominal pain, particularly in cases of upper abdominal malignancies such as pancreatic cancer, where neurolytic blocks reduce pain intensity and opioid requirements by interrupting sympathetic transmission.^[38] These blocks, often performed via percutaneous approaches under imaging guidance, provide targeted analgesia and improve quality of life, serving as an alternative to celiac plexus blockade when anatomy is distorted.^[39] In Hirschsprung's disease, aganglionosis of the enteric nervous system results in unopposed sympathetic input due to absent parasympathetic ganglia, contributing to autonomic dysfunction and persistent intestinal contraction.^[40] Autonomic dysreflexia, a life-threatening syndrome in individuals with spinal cord injuries at or above T6, arises from unmodulated sympathetic reflexes involving thoracic splanchnic nerves, triggered by noxious stimuli below the lesion level and causing episodic hypertension.^[41]^[42] Symptoms of splanchnic nerve disorders often manifest as chronic abdominal pain, which can stem from neuropathic irritation or inflammatory involvement of the nerves, as seen in conditions like chronic pancreatitis where thoracic splanchnic pathways transmit visceral nociception via the celiac plexus.^[43] Motility disorders, such as intestinal pseudo-obstruction (e.g., Ogilvie's syndrome), may result from sympathetic overactivity, which inhibits gastrointestinal propulsion and leads to colonic dilation without mechanical obstruction, exacerbated by hypertonia in splanchnic sympathetic outflow.^[44]^[45] Orthostatic hypotension can occur with lumbar splanchnic nerve damage, impairing sympathetic-mediated vasoconstriction in the splanchnic circulation and promoting venous pooling upon postural change, thereby reducing cardiac preload.^[46] Dysfunction in these nerves can also indirectly influence vascular tone in the splanchnic bed, altering blood flow regulation.^[47] Diagnosis of splanchnic nerve disorders typically relies on clinical history, autonomic testing, and imaging modalities. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) aids in visualizing nerve integrity and detecting compressive or inflammatory lesions along the splanchnic pathways, particularly in retroperitoneal or thoracic regions.^[48] Nerve conduction studies, though more commonly applied to peripheral nerves, can assess sympathetic function in select cases through evaluation of sudomotor or vasomotor responses, helping confirm neuropathic involvement when combined with electromyography.^[49] For thoracic-specific issues, such as celiac plexus involvement in pancreatitis-related pain, computed tomography-guided diagnostic blocks may confirm sympathetic mediation by reproducing or alleviating symptoms.^[43]

Disorders of Splanchnic Circulation

Disorders of splanchnic circulation primarily involve disruptions in arterial or venous blood flow to the abdominal viscera, leading to ischemia, infarction, or congestion of organs such as the intestines, liver, and spleen. These conditions can arise from occlusive events, low-flow states, or hypercoagulable conditions, often resulting in high morbidity and mortality if untreated. Acute forms, such as mesenteric ischemia, carry mortality rates of 32% to 80%, while chronic variants and venous thromboses may present more insidiously but still require prompt intervention to prevent complications like bowel necrosis or portal hypertension.^[50] Acute splanchnic ischemia, often termed acute mesenteric ischemia (AMI), manifests as sudden interruption of arterial blood supply, causing severe abdominal pain disproportionate to physical findings, along with nausea, vomiting, and hypotension. Causes include embolic occlusion (e.g., from atrial fibrillation), in situ thrombosis due to atherosclerosis, venous thrombosis, or non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia (NOMI) triggered by vasoconstriction in low-flow states like cardiogenic shock or sepsis. Diagnosis relies on urgent imaging, with multidetector computed tomography (CT) angiography offering high sensitivity (up to 95%) for detecting occlusions, supplemented by biomarkers like lactate or intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FABP). Management emphasizes rapid revascularization via endovascular thrombolysis, angioplasty, or surgical embolectomy, alongside supportive care such as fluid resuscitation and broad-spectrum antibiotics to mitigate bowel perforation risks.^[50]^[51] Chronic splanchnic ischemia, also known as chronic mesenteric ischemia (CMI) or "abdominal angina," develops from progressive stenosis of visceral arteries, typically atherosclerotic, affecting the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, or inferior mesenteric artery in single- or multi-vessel disease. Patients experience postprandial epigastric pain starting 15-30 minutes after eating and lasting 1-3 hours, leading to food avoidance and involuntary weight loss averaging 1.3 kg per month. Duplex ultrasound serves as the initial diagnostic tool, identifying stenoses with 80-90% accuracy, while CT or magnetic resonance angiography confirms findings prior to intervention. Treatment favors endovascular stenting for its lower perioperative risk compared to open surgery, with clinical success rates exceeding 80% in symptom relief, though long-term patency requires antiplatelet therapy.^[50] Splanchnic vein thrombosis (SVT) represents a venous counterpart, involving clot formation in the portal, mesenteric, splenic, or hepatic veins, often in non-cirrhotic, non-neoplastic patients. Risk factors include local provocations like inflammatory bowel disease, acute pancreatitis, abdominal surgery, or trauma, alongside systemic elements such as inherited thrombophilias (e.g., factor V Leiden mutation, prothrombin G20210A variant) or acquired conditions like infections (including COVID-19) and hormonal therapies. Symptoms are frequently nonspecific, encompassing abdominal pain, gastrointestinal bleeding, or ascites from portal hypertension, and approximately 30% of cases are incidental discoveries on imaging.^[52] Diagnosis employs Doppler ultrasound or contrast-enhanced CT to visualize thrombi, with thrombophilia screening recommended for unprovoked events. Anticoagulation with low-molecular-weight heparin or direct oral anticoagulants forms the cornerstone of therapy, extending 3-6 months or indefinitely based on recurrence risk, while addressing underlying causes prevents extension to intestinal ischemia.^[52] In broader contexts, such as septic or cardiogenic shock, splanchnic hypoperfusion can occur without occlusion due to sympathetic vasoconstriction or redistributed flow, increasing gut permeability and risking endotoxemia or multiple organ failure. Gastric tonometry, measuring mucosal pH, aids in detecting subclinical ischemia with high sensitivity (80-90%), guiding resuscitation with inotropes like dobutamine to maintain adequate perfusion pressure.^[53] These low-flow disorders underscore the splanchnic bed's vulnerability as a major vascular reservoir, where even transient hypoperfusion elevates mortality by 2-3 fold when coupled with hepatic dysfunction.^[51]

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