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Electromyography

Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic technique that measures and records the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles during rest and contraction, using electrodes to assess the health of muscles and the motor neurons that control them.^[1] This procedure, often combined with nerve conduction studies (NCS), helps evaluate the integrity of the peripheral nervous system, neuromuscular junctions, and muscle fibers by detecting abnormalities in signal generation, propagation, and response.^[2] The origins of EMG trace back to the 17th century, with early observations of bioelectricity in animals, such as Francesco Redi's 1666 documentation of electrical discharges from electric ray fish muscles.^[3] Key advancements followed, including Luigi Galvani's 1792 experiments demonstrating that electricity could trigger muscle contractions, and Étienne-Jules Marey's 1890 introduction of the term "electromyography" alongside the first mechanical recordings of muscle potentials.^[3] By the early 20th century, technological improvements like the oscilloscope enabled precise visualization of electrical signals, leading to clinical applications in the 1920s and 1930s for diagnosing neuromuscular disorders; the concentric needle electrode was introduced in 1929, with modern EMG techniques and standardization developing in the 1940s.^[3]^[4] Today, EMG encompasses needle EMG (invasive insertion of fine-wire electrodes into muscles) and surface EMG (noninvasive skin electrodes), with the former providing detailed motor unit analysis and the latter suitable for broader muscle activity monitoring.^[2] EMG is primarily indicated for investigating symptoms such as muscle weakness, numbness, tingling, pain, or cramps, aiding in the diagnosis of conditions like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), muscular dystrophy, carpal tunnel syndrome, radiculopathies, myopathies, and polyneuropathies.^[1] During the procedure, patients typically undergo NCS first—where small electrical shocks stimulate nerves via surface electrodes to measure conduction velocity and amplitude—followed by needle EMG, where a thin needle electrode is inserted into targeted muscles to record spontaneous and voluntary activity.^[2] Abnormal findings may include fibrillation potentials (indicating denervation), reduced motor unit recruitment (suggesting neuropathy), or myopathic changes like short-duration potentials.^[2] Risks are minimal but can include temporary soreness, bruising, or rare complications like infection or pneumothorax when sampling intercostal muscles.^[1] Beyond clinical diagnostics, EMG has applications in rehabilitation, biomechanics, and neuroprosthetics, where surface recordings inform muscle fatigue assessment and prosthetic control algorithms.^[3] Its quantitative analysis, enhanced by signal processing techniques like wavelet transforms, supports research into neuromuscular function and disease progression.^[3] Overall, EMG remains a cornerstone of electrodiagnostic medicine, offering objective insights into neuromuscular pathophysiology when integrated with clinical history and imaging.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic technique that evaluates and records the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles through the use of electrodes placed on or inserted into the muscle.^[1] This method assesses the health of muscles and the motor neurons that control them, providing insights into the functional integrity of the neuromuscular system.^[5] By measuring the electrical signals generated during muscle contraction and at rest, EMG helps identify abnormalities in muscle response to nerve stimulation.^[6] The primary purpose of EMG is to diagnose neuromuscular disorders, evaluate overall muscle health, and assess the communication between nerves and muscles.^[2] It plays a crucial role in detecting conditions such as myopathies, which involve primary muscle diseases; neuropathies, affecting peripheral nerves; and motor neuron diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).^[7]^[8] These evaluations aid clinicians in differentiating between neurogenic and myopathic processes, guiding treatment decisions and monitoring disease progression.^[9] EMG encompasses two main types: surface EMG, which is noninvasive and uses electrodes applied to the skin surface, and needle EMG, which is invasive and involves inserting thin needles directly into the muscle.^[2] Surface EMG is particularly useful for analyzing broad muscle activation patterns, such as during voluntary movements or in rehabilitation settings, while needle EMG enables detailed examination of individual motor unit activity to pinpoint localized abnormalities.^[2] This distinction allows EMG to be tailored to specific diagnostic needs, balancing accessibility with precision.^[1]

Physiological Basis

Skeletal muscle contraction is initiated by motor units, which consist of a single motor neuron and the group of muscle fibers it innervates.^[10] When an action potential arrives at the neuromuscular junction, it triggers the release of acetylcholine, leading to depolarization of the muscle fiber membrane and subsequent excitation-contraction coupling.^[10] This process results in the synchronous activation of muscle fibers within the motor unit, generating electrical signals that propagate along the sarcolemma and transverse tubules to release calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, enabling cross-bridge formation between actin and myosin filaments for contraction.^[10] The electrical activity in muscle fibers arises from changes in the membrane potential, maintained at rest by the sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase), which actively transports three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions in, using ATP to establish concentration gradients essential for excitability.^[11] The resting membrane potential in skeletal muscle cells is approximately -90 mV, primarily determined by the high permeability to K⁺ ions, as described by the Nernst equation for the potassium equilibrium potential:

E_K = \frac{RT}{zF} \ln \left( \frac{[K^+]_{out}}{[K^+]_{in}} \right)

where R is the gas constant, T is temperature in Kelvin, z is the ion valence (+1 for K⁺), F is the Faraday constant, [K^+]_{out} is extracellular potassium concentration (about 4 mM), and [K^+]_{in} is intracellular (about 120-140 mM), yielding E_K \approx -90 mV.^[12] For sodium, the equilibrium potential is positive (+60 to +70 mV) due to its concentration gradient ([Na^+]_{out} \approx 140 mM, [Na^+]_{in} \approx 10-14 mM).^[12] An action potential in a muscle fiber begins with depolarization, where voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, allowing Na⁺ influx that rapidly shifts the membrane potential toward the sodium equilibrium potential (overshoot to +30 mV).^[12] This is followed by repolarization as Na⁺ channels inactivate and voltage-gated K⁺ channels open, permitting K⁺ efflux to restore the negative potential, with the Na⁺-K⁺ pump contributing to long-term recovery by countering net ion movements.^[12] The resulting muscle fiber action potential (MFAP) propagates bidirectionally along the fiber at speeds of 3-5 m/s.^[13] The motor unit action potential (MUAP) is the algebraic summation of MFAPs from all fibers in a single motor unit, typically exhibiting a triphasic waveform with an initial positive deflection when recorded extracellularly, due to the leading dipole formed by the propagating wavefront.^[13] As multiple motor units are recruited, their MUAPs summate temporally and spatially to form the compound muscle action potential (CMAP), a larger waveform reflecting synchronous or near-synchronous activation of many fibers, with amplitude and duration influenced by the number of active units and electrode distance.^[13] This summation follows volume conductor principles, where near-field potentials dominate close to the source and far-field effects attenuate with distance.^[13]

History

Early Discoveries

The foundations of electromyography trace back to the late 18th century, when Italian physician and physicist Luigi Galvani conducted pioneering experiments demonstrating the existence of bioelectricity in living tissues. In the 1780s, Galvani observed that the legs of dissected frogs twitched when touched by a metal scalpel during a thunderstorm, suggesting an intrinsic "animal electricity" within the muscle and nerve rather than external static electricity. He formalized these findings in his 1791 treatise De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius, where he described how electrical stimulation could elicit muscle contractions, establishing the concept of endogenous electrical activity in biological systems.^[14]^[15] This work sparked a famous debate with Alessandro Volta, who argued that the electricity arose from contact between dissimilar metals used in the experiments, leading Volta to invent the voltaic pile and shift focus toward exogenous sources of current.^[16] Building on Galvani's discoveries, 19th-century researchers advanced the quantitative measurement of muscle electrical activity. In the 1840s, Italian physicist Carlo Matteucci refined techniques for detecting these currents, using a sensitive galvanometer developed by Emil du Bois-Reymond to record steady electrical flows from injured frog muscles. Matteucci identified the "rheoscopic frog"—a preparation of frog sciatic nerve and gastrocnemius muscle—as a reliable detector of feeble currents, coining the term "muscular current" to describe the bioelectric signals emanating from muscle tissue during contraction and injury.^[17]^[18] These experiments confirmed Galvani's animal electricity as a measurable phenomenon, with Matteucci demonstrating that the current flowed from the muscle's interior to its exterior surface.^[19] Emil du Bois-Reymond, a German physiologist, further refined these methods in the mid-19th century, enhancing the sensitivity of galvanometric detection to isolate nerve and muscle potentials more precisely. In 1843, he applied stimuli to electropositive and electronegative regions of muscle fibers, observing directional currents that clarified the propagation of electrical signals along nerves and into muscles.^[20] Du Bois-Reymond's innovations, including improved electrode designs and calibration techniques, distinguished "injury currents" from active contraction potentials, laying groundwork for understanding the electrophysiological basis of neuromuscular transmission.^[21] His work emphasized the electrical nature of nerve impulses, bridging early qualitative observations with emerging quantitative electrophysiology.^[22] In 1890, French physiologist Étienne-Jules Marey introduced the term "electromyography" and made the first mechanical recordings of muscle electrical potentials using a modified sphygmograph on frog muscles, marking an important step toward graphical representation of muscle activity.^[23] Early 20th-century progress marked a shift toward recording discrete electrical events from individual muscle fibers. In 1925, British physiologist Edgar Adrian achieved a breakthrough by using fine capillary electrodes to capture the action potentials of single motor units in frog muscle, revealing how nerve impulses triggered synchronized muscle fiber discharges.^[24] This technique, combined with vacuum tube amplification, allowed Adrian to link motor unit potentials directly to neural signaling, demonstrating the all-or-none principle of muscle responses and advancing the resolution from gross muscle currents to unitary activity.^[25]^[26]

Modern Developments

In the mid-20th century, significant advancements in electromyography (EMG) instrumentation and clinical application marked the transition from experimental recordings to practical diagnostic tools. In 1942, Herbert Jasper constructed the first modern EMG machine at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, which featured improved amplification and recording capabilities, enabling more reliable detection of muscle electrical activity.^[27] Concurrently, during the 1940s and 1950s, researchers at the Mayo Clinic, including Edward H. Lambert and collaborators influenced by Derek Denny-Brown's earlier work on fasciculation potentials, advanced EMG's clinical utility. Lambert established the first dedicated clinical EMG laboratory in the United States at Mayo Clinic in 1943, facilitating systematic studies of neuromuscular disorders and contributing to the 1947 recognition of EMG's wartime applications through a Presidential Certificate of Merit.^[4] Standardization efforts in the 1960s further solidified EMG as a core electrodiagnostic technique. The concentric needle electrode, originally developed in 1929 but refined for broader use, saw widespread adoption during this decade due to its ability to isolate single motor unit potentials with greater precision, enhancing diagnostic specificity for conditions like myopathies and neuropathies.^[28] By the 1970s, EMG became routinely integrated with nerve conduction studies (NCS), forming the foundation of comprehensive electrodiagnostic evaluations; this combination allowed clinicians to differentiate between axonal and demyelinating lesions by correlating muscle and nerve responses, a practice that gained prominence through collaborative research and laboratory protocols.^[4] Key technological milestones in the 1980s propelled EMG toward automated and quantitative analysis. The introduction of computer-assisted EMG systems, pioneered through microprocessor integration, enabled real-time signal processing, quantitative measurement of motor unit action potentials, and reduced operator variability, as exemplified by early clinical scanning methods developed by Cram and Steger.^[23] These developments improved reproducibility and efficiency in diagnosing neuromuscular diseases. The American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine (AANEM), founded in 1953 as the American Association of Electromyography and Electrodiagnosis, played a pivotal role in standardizing EMG practices. Through its guidelines, first published in 1979 and updated regularly—such as those on reference values for NCS in 2016—AANEM ensured consistent methodology, training requirements, and reporting standards, fostering high-quality clinical application across institutions.^[29]

Methods and Techniques

Electrode Types and Placement

Surface electrodes are non-invasive devices used in electromyography (EMG) to record muscle activity from the skin surface, typically consisting of adhesive or gel-based pads made from silver/silver chloride for optimal conductivity.^[30] Common configurations include monopolar electrodes, which use a single active site with a distant reference; bipolar electrodes, featuring two closely spaced detection surfaces for differential recording to reduce noise; and multi-channel arrays, which enable simultaneous recording from multiple sites for mapping muscle activation patterns.^[31] These electrodes are applied after skin preparation, such as abrading to remove dead cells and applying conductive gel, to achieve an ideal electrode-skin impedance below 5 kΩ, ensuring minimal signal distortion.^[32] Placement of surface electrodes follows standardized protocols to maximize signal quality, positioning the active sites longitudinally along the muscle fibers, ideally over the muscle belly between the innervation zone (motor point) and the tendon insertion to capture the highest amplitude potentials while avoiding crosstalk from adjacent muscles.^[33] The inter-electrode distance in bipolar setups is typically 1-2 cm, with the ground electrode placed on a bony prominence to minimize artifacts.^[31] For example, on the biceps brachii, electrodes are centered midway between the motor point and distal tendon, parallel to the fiber direction; for the quadriceps vastus lateralis, placement is one-third of the distance from the superior anterior iliac spine to the lateral patella border.^[34] These guidelines, recommended by the Surface ElectroMyoGraphy for the Non-Invasive Assessment of Muscles (SENIAM) project, emphasize palpation and patient positioning to align with muscle anatomy.^[35] Needle electrodes, in contrast, are invasive tools inserted directly into the muscle for higher-resolution recordings of motor unit action potentials, with common types including monopolar, concentric, and single-fiber designs.^[36] Monopolar needles feature a Teflon-coated stainless steel cannula with an uncoated tip (recording surface approximately 0.2-0.5 mm²) and require a separate surface reference electrode, offering a spherical recording field for broader sampling.^[36] Concentric needles consist of a central platinum-iridium wire (recording electrode) insulated within a steel cannula (reference electrode), with a typical outer diameter of 0.3 mm (30 gauge) and lengths ranging from 25-75 mm, producing a teardrop-shaped recording area for more directional signals.^[37] Single-fiber needles use a fine 25 µm wire exposed laterally along the shaft for high-impedance recordings from individual muscle fibers, primarily in specialized jitter analyses.^[37] All types are disposable and sterile to prevent infection.^[38] Insertion of needle electrodes involves holding the needle like a pen and advancing it smoothly at a 45-90° angle relative to the skin surface, with depths of 1-3 cm tailored to muscle size and patient anatomy, followed by small 0.5-1 mm activations in multiple directions (2-4 passes) to sample different motor units.^[37] For the quadriceps vastus lateralis, insertion is lateral to the femur midline at a 45° angle to a depth of 2-3 cm; for deeper muscles like the gluteus maximus, a 60-90° angle reaches 3-5 cm.^[37] Patient relaxation and slight voluntary contraction aid confirmation of placement via audio or visual feedback.^[36] Placement protocols in EMG adhere to American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine (AANEM) guidelines, prioritizing anatomical landmarks over fixed distances to account for variations in body habitus, with supine or prone positioning to access specific sites.^[39] Factors such as subcutaneous fat thickness influence signal quality, where improper placement over fat layers can attenuate signals or introduce false positives by sampling non-target tissue.^[37] Ultrasound guidance may assist in complex cases for precise localization, reducing risks like hematoma.^[37]

Signal Acquisition and Processing

Electromyography (EMG) signals exhibit specific electrical characteristics that necessitate careful acquisition and processing to preserve their integrity for analysis. The amplitude of surface EMG signals typically ranges from 50 µV to 10 mV peak-to-peak, depending on muscle contraction intensity, electrode type, and pathological conditions, while intramuscular needle EMG signals can reach up to 10 mV.^[31] The frequency content is primarily within 10-500 Hz, with the majority of energy concentrated between 20-150 Hz, reflecting the rapid depolarization and repolarization of muscle fibers. High input impedance in acquisition systems, often exceeding 100 MΩ at 50/60 Hz, is essential for impedance matching between electrodes and skin to minimize signal attenuation and noise pickup from electrode-skin interfaces. Signal acquisition begins with differential amplification to boost the low-amplitude EMG signals while rejecting common-mode noise, such as electrocardiographic artifacts. Amplifiers provide gains of 1000-5000 times (1000-74 dB), converting microvolt-level inputs to millivolt outputs suitable for further processing; for example, a gain of 1000 elevates a 20 µV signal to 20 mV. Following amplification, analog-to-digital conversion digitizes the signal using a high-resolution ADC, typically 12-16 bits, to maintain precision. Sampling rates exceed 2 kHz per the Nyquist theorem, which requires at least twice the highest frequency component (e.g., >1 kHz for 500 Hz bandwidth) to avoid aliasing; common rates of 2-4 kHz ensure faithful representation of EMG waveforms without excessive data volume. Initial processing involves filtering to isolate the EMG bandwidth and suppress interference. A bandpass filter, typically 20-1000 Hz (high-pass at 10-30 Hz to eliminate motion artifacts and low-frequency drift, low-pass at 400-1000 Hz to attenuate high-frequency noise), is applied to retain physiological content while removing extraneous components. A notch filter at 50/60 Hz targets powerline interference, though its use is selective to avoid distorting dominant EMG frequencies around 50-150 Hz. Artifact rejection techniques, such as adaptive filtering or threshold-based detection, further mitigate non-stationary noise like electrode motion or cross-talk from adjacent muscles. Decomposition of the composite EMG signal into individual motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) is a critical processing step for quantitative analysis, particularly in interference patterns during voluntary contractions. Template matching algorithms identify and classify MUAPs by comparing signal segments to predefined templates derived from initial detections, enabling separation of overlapping firings from multiple motor units. These methods achieve high accuracy in low-to-moderate contraction levels, with performance degrading in high-force tasks due to increased overlap. The root mean square (RMS) value quantifies overall signal amplitude and muscle activation level in processed EMG data, providing a robust measure of power over time windows (e.g., 50-200 ms).

\text{RMS} = \sqrt{\frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^{N} x_i^2}

Here, x_i represents the digitized signal samples, and N is the number of samples in the window; RMS correlates with recruitment and firing rates, aiding in fatigue assessment and activation normalization.

Clinical Applications

Diagnostic Uses

Electromyography (EMG) plays a central role in diagnosing neuromuscular disorders by evaluating the electrical activity of muscles and the motor neurons controlling them, often integrated with nerve conduction studies (NCS) for a comprehensive assessment of lesion localization, injury type, and sensory versus motor involvement.^[2] This combination helps differentiate between axonal and demyelinating pathologies, providing essential diagnostic clarity in cases of unexplained weakness (affecting about 13.9% of referrals), pain (5.3%), or numbness and tingling (73.6%).^[2] For instance, EMG is commonly employed to investigate symptoms such as muscle cramping or progressive weakness, guiding clinicians toward specific neuromuscular etiologies.^[1] In peripheral neuropathies, EMG aids diagnosis by identifying patterns of denervation and reinnervation, such as slowed conduction velocities in carpal tunnel syndrome when combined with NCS, which confirm median nerve compression at the wrist.^[1] For myopathies, needle EMG reveals characteristic small motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) with early recruitment and reduced amplitude, as seen in conditions like muscular dystrophy or polymyositis, where spontaneous activity may indicate inflammatory processes.^[2] In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), EMG detects widespread fibrillations, fasciculations, and active denervation across multiple spinal segments, supporting the Awaji or El Escorial criteria for probable or definite ALS.^[2]^[40] Routine EMG protocols are particularly useful for evaluating radiculopathies, where segmental testing localizes root-level lesions, such as in lumbosacral radiculopathy from disc herniation, by showing reduced recruitment in affected myotomes while preserving sensory nerve action potentials (SNAPs) to confirm an intraspinal origin.^[2] Quantitative EMG techniques, including single-fiber EMG, enhance early detection by measuring jitter and fiber density, offering higher sensitivity for subtle neuromuscular junction or motor neuron involvement.^[2] A classic clinical example is the detection of denervation potentials, such as fibrillations and positive sharp waves, in the aftermath of poliomyelitis, which indicate chronic lower motor neuron damage and ongoing reinnervation efforts.^[2] Despite its utility, EMG has contraindications, including active bleeding disorders such as hemophilia or thrombocytopenia with platelet counts below 50,000/µL, where the risk of hematoma formation at needle insertion sites necessitates caution or avoidance, particularly in patients on anticoagulants.^[2]^[1]

Therapeutic and Monitoring Uses

Electromyography (EMG) plays a key role in rehabilitation through biofeedback techniques, particularly using surface EMG to facilitate muscle re-education in conditions such as stroke and urinary incontinence. In stroke recovery, EMG biofeedback enhances strength and balance by providing real-time visual or auditory feedback on muscle activation levels, allowing patients to retrain impaired motor patterns.^[41] For urinary incontinence, surface EMG biofeedback targets pelvic floor muscles, improving control and reducing symptoms by monitoring and reinforcing voluntary contractions during therapy sessions.^[42] Intraoperative EMG monitoring is essential during nerve surgeries to prevent damage and ensure precise intervention. In facial nerve procedures, such as those for acoustic neuromas or parotid tumors, EMG detects nerve proximity by recording spontaneous or evoked muscle activity, alerting surgeons to potential injury and enabling mapping of the nerve's course.^[43]^[44] Additionally, train-of-four (TOF) stimulation via EMG assesses the depth of neuromuscular blockade in anesthesia, delivering four sequential stimuli to evaluate fade in muscle response and guide dosing of neuromuscular blocking agents to avoid residual paralysis.^[45]^[46] EMG also supports therapeutic guidance by tracking recovery in post-surgical neuropathies and optimizing interventions like botulinum toxin injections. Serial EMG studies monitor reinnervation and axonal regrowth in peripheral nerve injuries after repair, providing objective measures of functional improvement to inform ongoing rehabilitation.^[47]^[48] For spasticity management, EMG-guided botulinum toxin injections localize overactive muscles by identifying active motor units, ensuring targeted delivery to reduce tone while minimizing side effects.^[49]^[50] Since the 2020s, EMG has advanced precise neuromuscular monitoring in anesthesia, offering stable, quantitative assessments that reduce residual blockade risks compared to traditional methods.^[51] In prosthetics, EMG signals from residual muscles enable intuitive control of upper and lower limb devices, decoding user intent for movements like grasping or walking through pattern recognition algorithms.^[52]^[53]

Interpretation

Normal Findings

In healthy individuals, needle electromyography (EMG) at rest reveals electrical silence in relaxed muscles, characterized by the absence of spontaneous activity such as fibrillation potentials or positive sharp waves.^[2] Insertional activity, elicited by needle movement, is brief and normal, lasting less than 300 milliseconds and consisting of short-duration potentials without prolonged bursts.^[2] During voluntary muscle contraction, motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) are recruited in an orderly manner as force increases, following the size principle where smaller motor units activate first.^[54] Normal MUAPs typically exhibit a duration of 5-15 ms, amplitude ranging from 200 µV to 2 mV, and 2-4 phases, reflecting synchronized activation of muscle fibers within the motor unit.^[55] Firing rates of individual motor units begin at 4-5 Hz with minimal effort and increase to 5-30 Hz with stronger contractions, contributing to a smooth recruitment pattern. Quantitative norms for EMG signals vary slightly by muscle, but at maximal voluntary effort, the interference pattern fully fills the display, appearing as a dense envelope of overlapping MUAPs with no baseline breaks and maximal amplitude modulation. Age-related variations include longer MUAP durations in the elderly due to fiber loss and reinnervation, while gender differences may show slightly higher amplitudes in males for certain muscles.^[56] In nerve conduction studies complementary to EMG, the normal compound muscle action potential (CMAP) latency for the median nerve has an upper limit of 4.1 ms, indicating intact conduction from nerve to muscle.^[57]

Abnormal Patterns

Abnormal patterns in electromyography (EMG) deviate from the normal voluntary activation of motor units and the absence of spontaneous activity at rest, indicating disruptions in neuromuscular integrity such as denervation, reinnervation, or muscle fiber loss.^[58] These patterns are identified through needle electrode recordings during rest and voluntary contraction, revealing electrophysiological signs that reflect underlying pathophysiological mechanisms like axonal injury or fiber atrophy.^[59] Spontaneous activity refers to involuntary electrical discharges observed when the muscle is at rest, signifying instability in the neuromuscular junction or denervated fibers. Fibrillation potentials are small, regular action potentials generated by single muscle fibers, firing at frequencies of 0.5–15 Hz with amplitudes of 20–200 μV and durations of 1–5 ms for spike forms or longer for positive waves; this arises from the hyperexcitability of denervated fibers following axonal loss or muscle fiber separation.^[58] Fasciculations manifest as brief, irregular bursts from entire motor units at 1–2 Hz, resulting from spontaneous firing at nerve terminals due to irritability in partially denervated or reinnervating units.^[58] These activities are graded by density, from sparse (1+) to profuse (4+), and their presence correlates with ongoing denervation processes that increase membrane excitability.^[58] Motor unit action potential (MUAP) abnormalities during voluntary contraction highlight changes in the size, shape, and recruitment of motor units compared to normal triphasic waveforms with durations of 5–15 ms and amplitudes of 0.5–3 mV. Polyphasic MUAPs, defined by more than four phases in over 10% of potentials, occur due to asynchronous firing of muscle fibers within the unit, often from slowed conduction in reinnervated fibers or fiber splitting.^[55] Reduced recruitment, where fewer MUAPs are activated for a given force (firing rate-to-unit ratio below 5:1), stems from loss of motor units via axonal degeneration or conduction block, leading to rapid firing of surviving units to compensate.^[55] In contrast, short-duration, low-amplitude MUAPs (duration <5 ms, amplitude <100 μV) result from decreased muscle fiber content per unit due to fiber necrosis or dropout, producing a high-frequency, low-volume sound.^[55] Giant MUAPs, with durations exceeding 15 ms and amplitudes over 2 mV, emerge from collateral sprouting where surviving axons reinnervate denervated fibers, enlarging the motor unit territory and increasing synchronization.^[55]^[59] Interference patterns, assessed during maximal voluntary effort, normally show a dense, full envelope of overlapping MUAPs; abnormalities here indicate impaired motor unit activation or number. Discrete activity features isolated, high-amplitude MUAPs with incomplete overlap, caused by severe reduction in motor unit count from extensive axonal loss, allowing individual potentials to stand out.^[55] Early satellite potentials appear as small, time-locked deflections trailing the main MUAP by 5–50 ms, reflecting delayed conduction in thinly myelinated or regenerated axons during the early phases of reinnervation via collateral sprouting.^[55] In upper motor neuron lesions, reduced interference arises from diminished descending drive to lower motor neurons, resulting in incomplete activation and erratic recruitment despite normal MUAP morphology.^[59] These patterns collectively provide insights into the extent of neuromuscular disruption, with quantitative analysis aiding in distinguishing acute from chronic processes.^[60]

Limitations and Advances

Technical and Practical Limitations

Electromyography (EMG) signals are susceptible to contamination from movement artifacts, which can distort the recorded electrical activity and compromise diagnostic accuracy. These artifacts arise from electrode motion relative to the skin or muscle, often introducing low-frequency noise that overlaps with the EMG spectrum.^[61] Crosstalk between adjacent muscles represents another technical challenge, where signals from neighboring muscles interfere with the intended recording, particularly in surface EMG applications. This issue is exacerbated by anatomical proximity and electrode placement errors, leading to reduced signal specificity.^[62] In obese patients, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is notably poor due to increased subcutaneous fat thickness, which attenuates the myoelectric signal amplitude and amplifies crosstalk. Studies have shown that higher body mass index correlates with diminished EMG detectability, limiting the technique's reliability in this population.^[62]^[63] The invasive nature of needle EMG often causes patient discomfort or pain during electrode insertion, though experienced pain levels are typically lower than anticipated. This procedural pain can affect patient cooperation and limit the feasibility of repeated testing.^[64] Access to deep muscles is restricted with surface EMG, necessitating invasive needle insertion, which carries risks such as infection or bleeding, particularly for internal or profoundly located structures.^[65] EMG interpretation is highly operator-dependent, relying on the examiner's skill in electrode placement, signal identification, and recognition of subtle abnormalities, which can lead to variability in results across practitioners.^[66] Patient-specific factors further constrain EMG utility; for instance, anticoagulation therapy or antiplatelet medications pose relative contraindications due to bleeding risks, requiring careful risk-benefit assessment before proceeding.^[2] Implanted pacemakers warrant caution during EMG, as electrical stimulation might theoretically interfere, though no absolute prohibition exists if the device is informed to the operator. Signal variability is influenced by limb temperature, with cooling reducing EMG amplitude and median power frequency by up to 50%, while medications like muscle relaxants can alter baseline activity and confound findings.^[67] EMG may yield false negatives in early disease stages, such as nascent neuropathy, where pathological changes have not yet manifested in detectable motor unit alterations.^[68] Additionally, EMG cannot directly detect central nervous system disorders, as it primarily evaluates peripheral nerve and muscle function, necessitating complementary imaging or other tests for upper motor neuron involvement.^[69]

Recent Technological Advances

Recent advancements in electromyography (EMG) have focused on enhancing signal quality, accessibility, and integration with emerging technologies, particularly since 2020. Flexible noninvasive electrodes (FNEs) represent a significant innovation for surface EMG (sEMG), offering skin-conformable designs that reduce skin-electrode impedance and improve long-term signal stability compared to traditional rigid electrodes. A 2023 review highlights how these FNEs, often incorporating stretchable materials like hydrogels or nanomaterials, enable better adhesion and motion artifact reduction, facilitating continuous monitoring in dynamic environments.^[70] Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning have transformed EMG signal processing, particularly in decomposition and artifact removal. Deep learning techniques, such as convolutional neural networks combined with gated recurrent units, have been applied to restore lost high-density sEMG (HD-sEMG) signals, achieving robust decomposition even in noisy conditions. A 2025 study demonstrates that these methods effectively reconstruct missing channels in HD-sEMG arrays, improving overall signal integrity for clinical analysis. Furthermore, AI-driven classification of motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) has reached accuracies of 90-98%, enabling precise identification of neuromuscular patterns that were previously labor-intensive.^[71]^[72] In pattern recognition tasks, such as hand gesture decoding, stretchable EMG sensors integrated with graph neural networks maintain ~95% accuracy over extended use, reducing manual analysis requirements and enhancing real-time applications.^[73] Wireless and portable EMG systems have seen rapid market expansion, driven by demand for ambulatory monitoring. The global EMG devices market, valued at approximately USD 1.32 billion in 2025, is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.4% through 2030, with portable and wireless variants leading due to advancements in battery life and Bluetooth integration. These systems support home-based assessments and reduce patient burden in clinical settings. Complementing this, virtual EMG protocols enable remote supervision of needle EMG procedures via video and real-time data sharing, as validated in a 2025 feasibility study where experienced clinicians achieved safe and effective reporting without on-site presence.^[74]^[75] High-density EMG (HD-EMG) arrays have advanced to support 256+ channels, providing spatially resolved muscle activity mapping for detailed motor unit analysis. Post-2020 developments include 320-channel systems for multi-day forearm recordings, which capture consecutive sessions to study muscle fatigue and recovery with high fidelity. These arrays, often wireless, enhance decomposition accuracy in prosthetics and rehabilitation.^[76] Emerging applications leverage these technologies in neuroprosthetics and perioperative care. In neuroprosthetics, real-time EMG control has evolved with myoelectric interfaces that decode multi-degree-of-freedom movements, as outlined in a 2025 narrative review emphasizing signal processing improvements for intuitive prosthetic hand operation. For anesthesia monitoring, EMG-based neuromuscular blockade assessment offers superior precision over traditional acceleromyography, with 2025 studies confirming its role in detecting residual paralysis during recovery. AI integration in EMG reporting further streamlines interpretation, potentially reducing clinician workload by automating pattern detection in routine diagnostics.^[77]^[78]^[79]

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Based on such unusual observations Galvani concluded that there was a type of electrical fluid inherent in the body, which he dubbed animal electricity.
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Galvani's Animal Electricity |
The frog was Galvani's most frequently used laboratory animal, and it was prepared so that nerve and muscle tissues could be easily accessed. Cutting the spinal ...21 Galvani's Animal... · Electric Fish As Galvani's... · Galvani's Experiments
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Animal electricity and the birth of electrophysiology
According to Volta, electricity originated from the metals normally used for connecting the frog nerve and muscle. The controversy between Galvani and Volta is ...
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Figuring out what is happening: the discovery of two ...
May 17, 2022 · Ostensibly, the muscle and nerve current reported by du Bois-Reymond was the same as the animal electricity reported by Galvani and detected ...
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Matteucci and du Bois-Reymond: A Bitter Rivalry - ResearchGate
In the tradition of Galvani and Aldini, Carlo Matteucci used a newly developed galvanometer to record a current flow between the cut and intact surface of a ...
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Early detectors of the heart's electrical activity - PubMed
It was in Matteucci's rheoscopic frog in Pisa that evidence was first found for the electrical activity of the heart in 1844, and his results were confirmed ...Missing: Carlo muscle current detection<|control11|><|separator|>
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Emil du Bois-Reymond's innovations in theory and practice - Frontiers
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Emil du Bois-Reymond vs Ludimar Hermann - ScienceDirect.com
This essay recounts a controversy between a pioneer electrophysiologist, Emil du Bois-Reymond (1818–1896), and his student, Ludimar Hermann (1838–1914).
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Emil du Bois-Reymond and Dom Pedro II - NIH
Nov 24, 2022 · In his study of electrical conduction along nerve and muscle fibers, he found in 1843 that a stimulus applied to the electropositive surface of ...Missing: refinements | Show results with:refinements
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Human motor unit recordings: Origins and insight into the integrated ...
... 1925 and the necessary technology was developed, the recording of single motor unit activity became feasible in humans. It was quickly discovered by Edgar ...
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a century of in vivo motor unit recordings is the legacy of Adrian and ...
Dec 7, 2023 · In two papers dated 1928 to 1929 in The Journal of Physiology, Edgar Adrian and Detlev Bronk described recordings from motor nerve and muscle fibres.Missing: 1925 potentials capillary
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The Birth of Information in the Brain: Edgar Adrian and the Vacuum ...
Feb 9, 2015 · Adrian and Zotterman had been working on a frog's sensory nerve and muscle. They had impaled the nerve with electrodes and stretched the muscle.
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History of Electromyography (EMG) and Nerve Conduction Studies ...
To highlight the historical landmarks of EMG and NCS development by reviewing the major discoveries and publications of Bronk, Denny-Brown, Larrabee and ...
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History of electromyography and nerve conduction studies - PubMed
The early development of nerve conduction studies (NCS) and electromyography (EMG) was linked to the discovery of electricity. This relationship had been ...
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[PDF] concentric and monopolar electromyographic (emg) needles - Ambu
May 1, 2007 · Adrian and Bronk first introduced the concentric needle electrode in 1929. The concentric needle consists of a cannula (reference electrode) and ...
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[PDF] EMG Guide - BIOPAC
In the early. 1980s, Cram and Steger introduced a clinical method for scanning a variety of muscles using an EMG sensing device. By the mid-1980s, integration ...
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History - AANEM
In 1951, a small group of physicians practicing clinical electromyography and electrodiagnosis expressed a desire to organize a professional society.
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[PDF] The ABC of EMG - Herman & Wallace Pelvic Rehabilitation Institute
For surface electrodes, silver/silver chloride pre-gelled electrodes are the most often used electrodes and rec- ommended for the general use (SENIAM). Besides ...
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[PDF] SURFACE ELECTROMYOGRAPHY: DETECTION AND RECORDING
Figure 4: The preferred electrode location is between the motor point (or innervation zone) and the tendinous insertion, with the detection surfaces arranged so ...
[32]
[PDF] Establishing Standards for Acceptable Waveforms in ... - AANEM
• ensure optimal placement of the ground electrode. • reduce skin-electrode impedance by lightly abrading the skin prior to electrode application. • reduce ...
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Placement and fixation of the sensor - SENIAM
SENIAM recommends that the bipolar SEMG electrodes should be placed around the recommended sensor location with the orientation parallel to the muscle fibres.Missing: surface types
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Sensor Locations - SENIAM
SENIAM has developed recommendations for sensor locations on 30 individual muscles. For each muscle the recommendations include a description of the muscle ...Hip and Upper Leg · Lower leg and Foot · Arm or Hand · Shoulder or NeckMissing: types | Show results with:types
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[PDF] Position Statement - AANEM
Jul 22, 2014 · Needle EMG is not listed in the American Heart Association guidelines as a procedure which requires prophylactic antibiotic treatment to prevent ...
[39]
[PDF] Overview of Electrodiagnostic Medicine - AANEM
In reporting needle EMG studies, the type of needle electrode should be specified, and the data should be quantified according to currently accepted standards.
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Diagnosing ALS: the Gold Coast criteria and the role of EMG - PMC
Jan 6, 2022 · Importantly however, EMG is far from 100% sensitive and highly operator dependent. The sensitivity shortfall is most often apparent in cases of ...
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[PDF] BIOFEEDBACK - VA.gov
... electromyographic biofeedback enhances strength and balance in people with chronic stroke. ... Electromyographic biofeedback for stress urinary incontinence or ...
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Advancing Patient Care With Biofeedback - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
Jan 18, 2025 · [13] For urinary incontinence, biofeedback targets the pelvic floor muscles, while for fecal incontinence, the focus is on the external anal ...
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Intraoperative monitoring of the facial nerve - PubMed
Intraoperative electromyography alerts the surgeon to facial nerve proximity and potential injury. Direct nerve stimulation is utilized to confirm the location ...
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Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring - Aetna
Intraoperative functional monitoring aims to identify and map the facial nerve in the surgical field during surgery. It also aims to identify potentially ...
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Monitoring Depth of Neuromuscular Blockade - OpenAnesthesia
Apr 14, 2023 · Train-of-four (TOF) is the most common pattern of nerve stimulation and involves delivering four equal stimuli at 2-Hz. Train-of-four count ...
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Intraoperative Monitoring of Neuromuscular Blockade - PMC
May 15, 2023 · Neuromuscular blockade or paralysis should be monitored for all patients who receive NMBAs during anesthesia, in order to optimize the dosing of NMBAs.
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Peripheral Nerve Injury & Repair - Hand - Orthobullets
Mar 18, 2025 · ... EMG/NCS is a mainstay of evaluating both nerve injury and nerve recovery. Surgical exploration is confirmatory for traumatic nerve injuries.
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Peripheral Neurological Recovery and Regeneration
Aug 24, 2023 · EMG can demonstrate reinnervation via collateral sprouting and axonal regrowth. Functional Imaging like DWI and DTI can evaluate peripheral ...Missing: tracking | Show results with:tracking<|separator|>
[49]
Automatic EMG-guided botulinum toxin treatment of spasticity
TAA is a valuable tool to determine the benefit of single and subsequent botulinum toxin injections in the treatment of spasticity.
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The Role of Electromyography in Guiding Botulinum Toxin Injections ...
The Role of Electromyography in Guiding Botulinum Toxin Injections for Focal Dystonia and Spasticity. Todd Ajax, Mark A. Ross, Robert L. Rodnitzky. Neurology.
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From revival to routine: electromyography-based neuromuscular ...
Jul 31, 2025 · EMG-based monitoring is associated with reduced calibration time, improved stability against signal drift, and superior prevention of residual ...
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Electromyography-Based Control of Lower Limb Prostheses - NIH
Neuromuscular controlled prostheses can take advantage of this by recording EMG signals from the user's residual muscles to control powered artificial joints [9] ...
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EMG-driven control in lower limb prostheses: a topic-based ...
May 7, 2022 · In particular, it is possible to use EMG sensors to measure and decode users' motion intention directly from neural activity using muscles as ...
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Motor Unit Recruitment in EMG - Medscape Reference
Apr 14, 2025 · In an EMG study, the term "size" of a motor unit usually refers to the amplitude of the motor unit action potential (MUAP). The size principle ...
[55]
[PDF] Needle electromyography Fundamentals, normal and abnormal ...
Jun 2, 2021 · If the motor unit is normal, then the MUAP morphology will typi- cally have two to four phases, duration of 5–15 milliseconds, and variable.
[56]
Basic Electromyography: Analysis of Motor Unit Action Potentials
Aug 31, 2016 · Typical MUAP duration is between 5 and 15 ms. Duration is defined as the time from the initial deflection from baseline to the final return of ...Missing: source | Show results with:source
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[PDF] Reference Values - AANEM
Apr 20, 2020 · *Upper limits of normal is the 97th% of the observed differences distribution. These values only apply if the median is greater.
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Abnormal Spontaneous Electromyographic Activity - StatPearls - NCBI
Sep 15, 2025 · Abnormal spontaneous activity is defined as the persistence of electrical discharges outside the end-plate region, typically lasting longer than ...Missing: procedure | Show results with:procedure
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EMG Evaluation of the Motor Unit - Electrophysiologic Biopsy
Jan 5, 2020 · The focus of this article is on MUs and the MUPs they generate, particularly in neuromuscular disorders in which remodeling of the MU may occur.
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Electromyography - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Abnormal spontaneous activity: This occurs in the form of fasciculations, or fibrillations. ... The following are needle abnormalities in abnormal muscles: 1.
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Surface Electromyography: What Limits Its Use in Exercise and ...
Issues such as electrodes location, innervation zone detection, skin preparation, movement artifacts and sweating are very often ignored. Before coming to ...
[62]
The effect of subcutaneous fat on myoelectric signal amplitude and ...
This demonstrates that fat reduction surgery can increase surface EMG signal amplitude and signal independence for improved prosthesis control.Missing: limitations contamination artifacts SNR
[63]
Feasibility study of detecting surface electromyograms in severely ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Similarly, the coherence, gain, and phase of surface EMG signals are believed to be indirectly affected by BMI or subcutaneous fat thickness and ...
[64]
Expected and Experienced Pain Levels in Electromyography - NIH
Dec 1, 2013 · We found that experienced pain levels in association with needle EMG were significantly lower than expected pain levels.Missing: practical invasive deep operator
[65]
Electromyography Monitoring Systems in Rehabilitation: A Review ...
Mar 23, 2023 · Internal EMG electrodes are rarely utilized due to their invasive nature. This technique is generally applied to evaluate deep muscles and those ...
[66]
Needle EMG muscle identification: A systematic approach to needle ...
The muscle is examined by moving the needle along a straight line into the muscle in short steps (0.5–1 mm). Large movements are more painful and end-plate ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[67]
Effects of temperature on electromyogram and muscle function
Effects of temperature on electromyogram and muscle function. Eur J Appl ... EMG signal decreased by 50% due to cooling but remained unchanged with heating.
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Pitfalls in Using Electrophysiological Studies to Diagnose ... - NIH
Electrodiagnostic testing is used widely for the full characterization of neuromuscular disorders and for providing unique information on the processes ...
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Using and interpreting electrodiagnostic tests
Nov 1, 2020 · A negative test result cannot be used to exclude the diagnosis. Needle electrode examination may reveal motor unit instability in disorders ...
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Recent advances in flexible noninvasive electrodes for surface ...
Aug 16, 2023 · We review recent progress in FNEs for sEMG acquisition. We summarize the needed properties of FNEs, compare the differences between passive electrodes and ...
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An innovative deep learning-driven technique for restoration of lost ...
Apr 9, 2025 · This study introduces a novel deep learning-based technique specifically designed to restore lost HD-sEMG signals.
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Artificial intelligence-based classification of motor unit action ...
So far, AI studies reported high accuracy for some of these aspects, such as 100 % accuracy for classification of resting n-EMG signals and 90–98 % for MUAP ...
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Stretchable array electromyography sensor with graph neural ...
Apr 12, 2023 · In addition, the recognition accuracy (~95%) remained unchanged even after long-term testing for over 72 h and being reused more than 10 times.
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Electromyography Devices Market - Size & Share - Mordor Intelligence
Aug 8, 2025 · The Global Electromyography Devices Market is expected to reach USD 1.32 billion in 2025 and grow at a CAGR of 7.40% to reach USD 1.88 ...
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Virtual EMG: Safe and Effective Remote Supervision and Reporting
Jul 16, 2025 · This study explores the feasibility of performing needle EMG remotely, a concept referred to as “virtual EMG,” whereby an experienced clinician ...
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A Consecutive Multi-Day High-Density Surface Electromyography ...
Aug 14, 2025 · This paper presents a 320-channel HD-sEMG dataset, CEMHSEY (ConsecutivE Multi-day High-density Surface ElectromyographY), recorded from forearm ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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Advances in myoelectric neuroprosthetics: A narrative review
Conclusion. EMG-based prosthetic systems have seen significant progress over the years, with a large variety of signal processing and decoding techniques ...
[78]
From revival to routine: electromyography-based neuromuscular ...
Jul 31, 2025 · Electromyography (EMG)-based neuromuscular monitoring has emerged as a pivotal advancement in anesthesia, offering enhanced precision and ...
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AI-Based EMG Reporting: A Randomized Controlled Trial - PMC - NIH
Aug 22, 2025 · Exploring how physicians' expertise can refine AI tools may lead to solutions that surpass current physicians' capabilities and reduce workload ...