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Spurious relationship

In statistics, a spurious relationship, also known as a spurious correlation, is a mathematical association between two or more variables or events that suggests a causal connection but is actually attributable to coincidence, a confounding third variable, or a methodological artifact rather than a genuine direct or indirect causal link.^[1]^[2] The concept was first formally described by Karl Pearson in 1896, who identified a specific form of spurious correlation arising when ratios or indices sharing common components (such as denominators in measurements of biological organs) produce artificial positive associations, even if the underlying variables are uncorrelated.^[3] Spurious relationships manifest in various ways, with common causes including confounding variables that simultaneously influence both observed variables, leading to an illusory association.^[1] For instance, in cross-sectional data, a third factor like seasonal temperature can drive both ice cream sales and drowning incidents, creating a strong positive correlation without causation.^[4] Another classic example is the historical observation of a correlation between the number of stork nests in European regions and human birth rates, which reflects geographic or demographic coincidence rather than any biological link.^[5] In time series data, spurious relationships often emerge from regressing non-stationary processes, such as independent random walks, where standard tests falsely indicate significance due to persistent trends or unit roots, as demonstrated by Granger and Newbold in their seminal 1974 analysis of econometric models.^[6] These artifacts are exacerbated in big data or machine learning contexts, where models may overfit to superficial patterns like background colors in images that correlate with labels in training sets but fail in out-of-distribution scenarios.^[2] Recognizing and mitigating spurious relationships is essential for valid inference across disciplines like epidemiology, economics, geography, and artificial intelligence, as they can lead to erroneous policies or predictions if mistaken for true effects.^[5]^[1] Detection typically involves techniques such as controlling for potential confounders via multivariable regression, applying causal diagrams to identify back-door paths, testing for stationarity (e.g., using unit root tests like the Dickey-Fuller), or employing experimental designs like randomization to isolate true causal effects.^[1]^[6] In ratio-based analyses, partialling out shared components or using hypothesis tests for pure versus spurious coefficients helps quantify and adjust for artificial correlations.^[5]

Fundamentals

Definition

In statistics, variables are fundamental units of analysis, typically classified as independent variables (which may influence others) or dependent variables (which may be influenced). Correlation serves as a measure of the strength and direction of the linear association between two such variables, quantifying how changes in one tend to coincide with changes in the other, without implying causation.^[7] A spurious relationship, also known as spurious correlation, arises when two or more variables exhibit an apparent statistical association, yet this connection lacks a genuine causal mechanism and is instead attributable to external influences such as an unseen third variable or mere random chance. This phenomenon highlights the distinction between observed dependence and true underlying relationships, where the correlation may mislead interpretations if not scrutinized.^[8]^[9] The core characteristic of a spurious relationship is its illusory nature: an apparent statistical dependence exists without a direct or indirect causal link between the variables involved. For instance, the basic measure of such apparent association is often captured by Pearson's correlation coefficient, defined as

r = \frac{\cov(X,Y)}{\sigma_X \sigma_Y},

where \cov(X,Y) denotes the covariance between variables X and Y, and \sigma_X and \sigma_Y are their respective standard deviations; values of r range from -1 to 1, with non-zero values indicating apparent linear dependence that may prove spurious upon further analysis.^[7]

Key Distinctions

A spurious relationship differs fundamentally from true causation in that it lacks any direct mechanistic influence between the variables involved. In genuine causal links, altering the presumed cause reliably produces a corresponding change in the effect, often verifiable through experimental manipulation or rigorous observational controls that isolate the relationship from external influences. By contrast, spurious associations arise when the apparent connection is driven by an unobserved confounder or random artifact, yielding no actual causal pathway even if the correlation appears strong. While all spurious relationships manifest as correlations—statistical dependencies measurable via coefficients such as Pearson's r—not all correlations are spurious, marking a critical differentiation. The presence of correlation merely indicates that variables tend to vary together, but it provides no evidence of why or how, potentially encompassing both causal and non-causal dynamics. This distinction is encapsulated in the maxim "correlation does not imply causation," which first appeared in print in 1900, though the underlying idea was discussed earlier by statisticians including Karl Pearson, who cautioned against inferring directional influence from associative data alone without additional validation.^[10]^[11]^[12] To further contrast, non-spurious relationships encompass valid non-causal associations alongside true causal ones, with the latter forming a brief taxonomy of direct and indirect forms. Direct causation occurs when one variable exerts an immediate effect on another, unmediated by intermediates, as in a straightforward experimental outcome. Indirect causation, however, involves intermediary variables that transmit the influence, such as in path models where the total effect decomposes into mediated components. These categories highlight the robustness of non-spurious ties, which withstand scrutiny for confounding, unlike the illusory bonds of spurious relationships.^[13]

Examples

Classic Illustrations

One of the most famous illustrations of a spurious relationship is the observed correlation between the number of storks nesting in European regions and the human birth rates in those areas during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The association, noted in statistical literature using data from regions like Alsace-Lorraine and Germany, showed a strong positive relationship, with areas having more storks also reporting higher birth rates; analyses have reported correlation coefficients around 0.6 to 0.9 depending on the dataset.^[14] This apparent link was later popularized in statistical discussions as an example of non-causality, where the hidden confounding factor is rural versus urban living: storks prefer nesting in rural areas, which also tend to have higher birth rates due to socioeconomic and agricultural lifestyles at the time. A simple scatter plot of stork counts versus birth rates across districts reveals a clear upward trend, but controlling for rural density eliminates the association, demonstrating how environmental confounders create illusory causation. Another classic example involves the correlation between ice cream sales and drowning rates, both of which peak during summer months in temperate climates. Early 20th-century public health data from the United States, analyzed in statistical textbooks, showed a strong positive correlation between monthly ice cream consumption and drowning incidents across states. The spurious nature arises from the seasonal confounding variable of warm weather: higher temperatures drive both increased ice cream sales (as a cooling treat) and more swimming activities, which elevate drowning risks, without any direct causal link between the two. Visualizing this in a time-series line graph highlights the synchronized seasonal spikes, but stratifying data by temperature or season reveals no residual relationship, underscoring the role of temporal confounders in misleading correlations. These examples illustrate concepts explored by early statisticians like Karl Pearson in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who developed the Pearson correlation coefficient and cautioned against inferring causation from association alone in observational data. Pearson's 1896 paper highlighted how spurious links, prevalent in ecological and demographic studies of the era, necessitated rigorous controls to distinguish true relationships from artifacts of confounding variables.^[3]

Real-World Applications

One prominent modern example of a spurious relationship is the observed correlation between the number of films starring Nicolas Cage and the number of people who drowned by falling into swimming pools in the United States. Data from 1999 to 2009 show a correlation coefficient of r = 0.666, with both variables fluctuating similarly over the period, peaking around 2006; however, this is purely coincidental, as no causal mechanism links film releases to drownings. The dataset draws from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) mortality statistics for drownings and Internet Movie Database (IMDb) records for Cage's filmography.^[15]^[16] Another illustrative case involves chocolate consumption per capita and the number of Nobel laureates per 10 million people across countries from 2000 to 2011, yielding a strong correlation of r = 0.791 (p < 0.0001). This association appears to suggest that higher chocolate intake enhances cognitive function leading to more scientific achievements, but it is confounded by national wealth, as wealthier nations both consume more chocolate and invest more in education and research, producing more laureates. The data were sourced from national consumption statistics and Nobel Prize records. In epidemiology, early observational studies prior to 2002 suggested that hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in postmenopausal women reduced coronary heart disease (CHD) risk by 40-50%, based on data from cohorts like the Nurses' Health Study. However, the 2002 Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial revealed no such benefit and even an early increase in CHD events, highlighting how confounding biases—such as healthier, wealthier women self-selecting for HRT—created the illusory protective effect in non-experimental data. This discrepancy underscores the pitfalls of unadjusted observational associations in medical research.^[17]^[18] In economics, the relationship between GDP growth and stock market returns often appears spurious, particularly during bubbles where rapid stock price increases outpace underlying economic expansion. Cross-country analysis from 1900 to 2002 shows a negative correlation between real per capita GDP growth and equity returns (r ≈ -0.2 to -0.3), as high-growth emerging markets frequently underperform in stocks due to valuation resets, while mature economies like the U.S. during the 1990s dot-com bubble saw stock surges uncorrelated with GDP fundamentals. This challenges the assumption that economic growth directly drives market performance.^[19]^[20] Datasets like those compiled by Tyler Vigen, aggregating over 25,000 real-world variables from public sources such as government reports and databases, exemplify how spurious relationships proliferate in large-scale analyses. In the era of big data, the sheer volume of variables amplifies these coincidental associations, as mathematical theorems like Ramsey's guarantee arbitrary correlations in sufficiently large random datasets, potentially misleading analyses without rigorous causal testing.^[15]^[21]

Causes

Confounding Factors

A confounding factor, also known as a confounder or lurking variable, is an extraneous third variable (Z) that influences both the independent variable (X) and the dependent variable (Y), thereby creating or distorting an apparent association between X and Y that does not reflect a true causal relationship.^[22]^[23] This distortion occurs because Z affects X and Y independently or through shared pathways, leading to a spurious correlation where the observed link between X and Y is illusory and driven by the common influence of Z.^[24] In statistical modeling, confounding can be represented in regression frameworks, where the true conditional expectation of Y given both X and Z is given by:

E(Y \mid X, Z) = \beta_0 + \beta_1 X + \beta_2 Z

Omitting Z from the model results in omitted variable bias, biasing the estimate of \beta_1 toward \beta_1 + \beta_2 \delta, where \delta is the coefficient from the auxiliary regression of Z on X; this bias direction depends on the signs and magnitudes of \beta_2 and \delta, potentially inflating, deflating, or reversing the perceived effect of X on Y.^[25]^[26] Confounders are classified as measured or unmeasured based on whether they can be observed and included in the analysis. Measured confounders, such as age or socioeconomic status in observational studies of health outcomes, can be adjusted for through techniques like stratification or multivariable regression to mitigate their distorting effects.^[27]^[28] Unmeasured confounders, which remain unobserved (e.g., genetic factors or unrecorded environmental exposures), pose greater challenges as they cannot be directly controlled, often requiring sensitivity analyses to assess potential bias.^[29]^[30]

Methodological Artifacts

Another cause of spurious relationships arises from the structure of measurements, particularly when using ratios or indices that share common components, such as a shared denominator. Karl Pearson first described this in 1897, noting that measurements of biological organs (e.g., brain weight to body weight ratios across species) can produce artificial positive correlations even if the underlying variables are uncorrelated, because deviations from the mean in the numerator and denominator tend to align due to the shared component.^[3] This artifact can be quantified and adjusted for using partial correlation techniques that remove the influence of the common term. In time series analysis, spurious relationships often result from regressing non-stationary processes, such as independent random walks with unit roots, leading to inflated R-squared values and falsely significant coefficients despite no true association. Granger and Newbold's 1974 study demonstrated this issue in econometric models, showing that differencing or cointegration tests are needed to distinguish genuine from spurious regressions.^[6]

Coincidental Associations

Coincidental associations occur when apparent relationships between variables emerge purely from random variation, sampling errors, or analytical artifacts, without any causal or confounding mechanisms at play. A primary mechanism is multiple testing, where numerous statistical tests are conducted on the same dataset, inflating the chance of detecting false positives. For example, p-hacking—manipulating analyses such as variable selection or model adjustments to achieve significance—can produce spurious results, particularly in large datasets where even modest biases amplify misleading patterns. Simulations demonstrate that such practices lead to upward bias in effect estimates, creating illusory associations that persist in aggregated analyses.^[31] The law of large numbers posits that sample averages converge to population expectations as sample size grows, but in finite samples, this convergence is probabilistic, allowing transient deviations that mimic meaningful correlations. These deviations in limited datasets can generate coincidental patterns, as random fluctuations appear systematic before sufficient data smooths them out.^[32] Central to these coincidences are probability concepts like Type I errors, where a null hypothesis of no association is incorrectly rejected. In hypothesis testing, the significance level α = 0.05 sets the acceptable risk of such false positives at 5%, meaning one in twenty tests may yield a spurious association by chance alone. Binomial probabilities further quantify this in multiple testing scenarios: for k independent tests, the likelihood of at least one false positive is 1 - (1 - α)^k, rising sharply—for instance, to about 64% for 20 tests—highlighting how chance correlations proliferate without adjustments.^[33]^[34] Several factors amplify these coincidental effects. Small sample sizes destabilize estimates, elevating Type I error rates in correlation analyses; for instance, samples as low as n = 25 can produce false positives up to 33% of the time in partial correlations, fostering unreliable associations. Data dredging, or post-hoc exploration of datasets for significant patterns without predefined hypotheses, similarly uncovers spurious links, as seen in studies where thousands of variable pairs yield far more "significant" correlations than expected by chance (e.g., over 3,000 at p < 0.01 versus 88 anticipated). Simpson's paradox compounds this by reversing trends upon data aggregation, often due to imbalanced subgroup sizes in finite samples, thereby masking or fabricating misleading overall associations.^[35]^[36]^[37]

Detection Methods

Hypothesis Testing

In statistical hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis (H0) posits no relationship between variables, such as zero correlation, while the alternative hypothesis (Ha) suggests a relationship exists, such as a non-zero correlation.^[38] The p-value represents the probability of observing the data (or more extreme data) assuming H0 is true; a low p-value (typically below 0.05) leads to rejection of H0, indicating statistical significance.^[39] This framework allows researchers to assess whether an apparent association is likely due to chance rather than a genuine effect. To apply this to potential spurious relationships, one common test evaluates the significance of the Pearson correlation coefficient r using a t-test, where the test statistic is calculated as

t = \frac{r \sqrt{n-2}}{\sqrt{1 - r^2}}

with n as the sample size; this t-value follows a t-distribution with n-2 degrees of freedom under H0: ρ = 0 (population correlation).^[40] A significant result rejects H0, but in cases of spurious correlations—such as those arising from sampling variability or coincidental associations—it increases the risk of false positives, where a non-existent relationship is deemed significant.^[8] Such false positives become more likely without safeguards, as coincidental associations can mimic true effects in finite samples, leading to erroneous inferences.^[41] To mitigate this, adjustments like the Bonferroni correction divide the significance level (e.g., α = 0.05) by the number of comparisons m, setting the adjusted threshold at α/m to control the family-wise error rate and reduce the chance of spurious findings across multiple tests.^[42] This conservative approach helps distinguish genuine relationships from artifacts in exploratory analyses.^[43]

Experimental Approaches

Experimental approaches to identifying spurious relationships emphasize controlled interventions that isolate variables, thereby establishing causality by minimizing the influence of confounding factors. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) represent the gold standard for this purpose, involving random assignment of participants to treatment and control groups to ensure that any observed differences in outcomes can be attributed to the intervention rather than external variables. This randomization breaks potential spurious associations by distributing confounding influences evenly across groups, allowing researchers to infer causal effects with high confidence.^[44]^[45] To further reduce bias and spurious effects, RCTs often incorporate blinding, where participants, researchers, or both are unaware of group assignments, and the use of placebos in control groups to account for psychological or expectancy effects. For instance, in clinical trials evaluating drug efficacy, blinding prevents participants from altering behavior based on perceived treatment, while placebos control for non-specific therapeutic responses that might mimic causal links. These elements collectively isolate the true impact of the independent variable, distinguishing genuine causation from coincidental correlations.^[46]^[44] Key design elements in experiments also target potential sources of spurious relationships, such as order effects or individual differences. Counterbalancing involves varying the sequence of conditions across participants to neutralize biases from presentation order, particularly in studies with multiple trials. Within-subjects designs, where the same participants experience all conditions, control for inter-individual variability that could introduce spurious group differences, though they require counterbalancing to avoid carryover effects. In contrast, between-subjects designs assign different participants to each condition, reducing practice or fatigue artifacts but necessitating larger samples to equate groups and minimize confounding from selection biases. These strategies ensure that observed relationships reflect the manipulated variable rather than design artifacts.^[47]^[48] Despite their strengths, experimental approaches face limitations, particularly ethical constraints that preclude randomization in certain domains, such as historical or social policy analyses where withholding interventions could cause harm. In such cases, researchers turn to quasi-experiments, which approximate causal inference through non-random group assignments or natural interventions but remain vulnerable to unmeasured confounders. For example, evaluating educational reforms on past cohorts cannot involve random assignment, leading to reliance on observational controls that may not fully eliminate spurious links. These limitations highlight the need for careful interpretation when full experimental control is unattainable.^[49]^[50]

Statistical Analyses

Statistical analyses provide non-experimental tools to identify and adjust for spurious relationships in observational data by controlling for confounding variables or testing for underlying dependencies. These methods extend beyond preliminary hypothesis testing by incorporating modeling techniques that isolate direct associations from indirect or coincidental ones.^[24] Causal diagrams, also known as directed acyclic graphs (DAGs), offer a graphical approach to visualize potential relationships and identify confounding paths that may induce spurious correlations. By mapping variables and arrows representing causal directions, researchers can apply the back-door criterion to select a set of variables that block all non-causal paths from the exposure to the outcome, allowing adjustment (e.g., via stratification or regression) to estimate unbiased causal effects. This method helps reveal hidden confounders and prevents mistaking associations for causation.^[51] One fundamental technique is partial correlation, which measures the association between two variables while controlling for the effect of one or more confounders. For variables X and Y with a potential confounder Z, the partial correlation coefficient is calculated as:

r_{XY.Z} = \frac{r_{XY} - r_{XZ}r_{YZ}}{\sqrt{(1 - r_{XZ}^2)(1 - r_{YZ}^2)}}

where r_{XY}, r_{XZ}, and r_{YZ} are the Pearson correlation coefficients. This formula removes the linear influence of Z, revealing whether the original correlation between X and Y is spurious; if the partial correlation is near zero, the relationship likely stems from the confounder.^[52] Multiple regression builds on this by including potential confounders as covariates in a model, such as Y = \beta_0 + \beta_1 X + \beta_2 Z + \epsilon, to estimate the direct effect of X on Y while adjusting for Z. This approach quantifies how much of the variance in Y is explained by X independently of confounders, helping to disentangle spurious effects in multivariate settings.^[24] For more complex cases involving endogeneity—where unobserved factors correlate with both the predictor and outcome—instrumental variables (IV) offer a solution. An IV is a variable that affects the endogenous predictor but not the outcome directly, except through the predictor; two-stage least squares estimation uses the IV to purge endogeneity, yielding unbiased causal estimates in observational data.^[53] Propensity score matching simulates experimental randomization by estimating the probability of treatment assignment based on observed covariates and matching treated and control units with similar scores. This balances confounders across groups, reducing bias from spurious associations and allowing for more reliable effect estimation in non-randomized studies.^[54] To diagnose remaining spurious patterns after modeling, residual analysis examines the differences between observed and predicted values for non-random structures, such as autocorrelation or heteroskedasticity, which may indicate unadjusted confounders. Plotting residuals against fitted values or independent variables helps verify model adequacy and detect overlooked spurious influences.^[55] In time series data, detecting spurious relationships often begins with testing for stationarity using unit root tests, such as the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test. The ADF test evaluates the null hypothesis of a unit root (non-stationarity) against the alternative of stationarity by regressing the differenced series on lagged levels and differences; failure to reject the null indicates non-stationarity, signaling potential for spurious regressions between independent random walks. If series are non-stationary, differencing or cointegration tests (e.g., Engle-Granger) can be applied before proceeding to causality assessments. Granger causality tests whether lagged values of one series improve predictions of another beyond its own lags, distinguishing predictive relationships from spurious correlations due to common trends. Formally, if the variance of the forecast error for Y decreases when including X's past values, X Granger-causes Y; this method requires stationary series to avoid invalid inferences.^[56]

Correlation and Causation

The distinction between correlation and causation lies at the heart of understanding spurious relationships, which occur when an apparent association between two variables mimics a causal link but arises from coincidence or confounding factors rather than a direct effect. Philosophically, this interplay traces back to David Hume's 18th-century skepticism about causation, where he argued that humans infer causal connections not from observing necessary links between events but from repeated experiences of their constant conjunction, or correlation, leading to habitual expectations rather than rational proof.^[57] Hume's view underscores a fundamental limitation: what we perceive as causation is often an extension of observed patterns, vulnerable to misinterpretation as spurious when no underlying mechanism exists. In modern terms, this highlights how correlations can be illusory, prompting the need for rigorous criteria to differentiate true causal relationships from mere associations. Common misconceptions exacerbate the confusion between correlation and causation, particularly the "post hoc ergo propter hoc" fallacy, which assumes that because one event precedes another, it must have caused it, often resulting in spurious conclusions. For instance, this fallacy appears in flawed interpretations of sequential events, such as early studies suggesting a link between coffee consumption and pancreatic cancer based on temporal associations, later attributed to methodological biases like recall errors rather than true causation.^[58] Another misconception involves reverse causation, where the supposed effect influences the cause rather than vice versa, distinct from spurious relationships because it still implies a genuine but inverted causal direction—such as when poor health leads to reduced physical activity, rather than activity causing health decline—whereas spurious associations lack any causal tie altogether.^[59] These errors emphasize that temporal sequence alone does not establish causation, and spurious correlations can mimic both forward and reverse causal patterns without validity. To infer causation from observed associations and guard against spurious ones, epidemiologist Austin Bradford Hill proposed nine criteria in 1965, providing a systematic framework for evaluation. These include strength (a robust association suggests causation), consistency (replicable findings across studies), specificity (the cause links to a particular effect), temporality (the cause precedes the effect), biological gradient (a dose-response relationship), plausibility (alignment with biological knowledge), coherence (fit with broader facts), experiment (evidence from interventions), and analogy (similarity to known causal processes).^[60] Spurious relationships typically fail multiple criteria, such as lacking temporality or consistency, as they stem from artifacts like confounding rather than true mechanisms, thereby helping researchers avoid overinterpreting correlations as causal. Contemporary statistical philosophy addresses these challenges through Bayesian approaches to probabilistic causality, which model causal inferences using probability distributions over directed acyclic graphs to represent variables and their dependencies. These methods, such as causal Bayes nets, incorporate prior knowledge and update beliefs with evidence to distinguish genuine probabilistic causes from spurious correlations by accounting for latent confounders and interventions, offering a formal way to quantify uncertainty in causal claims.^[61] Unlike deterministic views, Bayesian frameworks treat causation as increasing the probability of an effect given the cause, providing tools to mitigate Humean skepticism by grounding inferences in empirical data and structural assumptions.

Other Statistical Relationships

In statistics, a mediated relationship occurs when an intermediate variable Z transmits the causal effect from an independent variable X to a dependent variable Y through a sequential path (X → Z → Y), thereby explaining the mechanism by which X influences Y, in contrast to a spurious relationship where no such causal chain exists between X and Y.^[62] This distinction is central to path analysis, a method that decomposes associations into direct, indirect, and spurious components using structural equation models; for instance, in a mediated model, the indirect effect is the product of paths from X to Z and Z to Y, while a spurious association appears as a curved double-headed arrow between X and Y due to an unmodeled common cause.^[63] Confounding relationships, often involving a common cause Z affecting both X and Y (X ← Z → Y), represent a specific form of confounding that generates a spurious correlation between X and Y when Z is unaccounted for, but they differ from purely spurious links if Z is identified and controlled, allowing the true independence of X and Y to be revealed through techniques like partial correlation.^[64] Such common-cause structures overlap with confounding factors but emphasize parallel influences from Z rather than sequential mediation.^[62] Suppressed relationships arise when a suppressor variable masks or weakens the true association between X and Y, often by introducing opposing variance that reduces the observed correlation (e.g., a negative partial correlation hiding positive direct effects), unlike spurious relationships where the association is entirely artifactual and disappears upon controlling for the third variable.^[65] For example, in psychological symptom measures, a weak bivariate correlation between appetite gain and loss subscales (r = -0.09) may conceal a stronger negative relationship (β = -0.33) once a suppressor like shared distress variance is partialed out, enhancing the validity of the predictors.^[65]

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Zen and the Art of Multiple Comparisons - PMC - NIH
The Bonferroni correction, though intuitive and simple to use, tends to be very conservative, i.e. results in very strict significance levels. Therefore, it ...
[41]
Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials
In any single trial, the chance of randomization can over-represent an important excluded cause(s) in one arm over the other, in which case there will be a ...
[42]
Topic VI. Correlation and Causation - Sense & Sensibility & Science
Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT): An attempt to identify causal relations by randomly assigning subjects into two groups and then performing an experimental ...
[43]
Blinding: Who, what, when, why, how? - PMC - NIH
Blinding is an important methodologic feature of RCTs to minimize bias and maximize the validity of the results. Researchers should strive to blind participants ...
[44]
[PDF] Evaluating Experimental Research
Counterbalancing Balancing the order of within-subjects conditions between subjects, so as to reduce the impact of practice effects. Dependent variable (DV) (or ...
[45]
[PDF] A manifesto for reproducible science - PSY 225: Research Methods
Jan 10, 2017 · Similarly, basic design prin- ciples are important, such as blinding to reduce experimenter bias, randomization or counterbalancing to control ...
[46]
The Limitations of Quasi-Experimental Studies, and Methods ... - NIH
QE studies are problematic because, when participants are not randomized to intervention versus control groups, systematic biases may influence group ...Missing: constraints | Show results with:constraints
[47]
Randomized Controlled Trials in Correctional Settings
Sep 23, 2020 · The first is that it is unethical to assign participants to a program or policy on a random basis. Practitioners will often say they are ...Missing: constraints | Show results with:constraints
[48]
[PDF] Lecture (chapter 15): Partial correlation, multiple regression, and ...
to the partial (first-order) correlation. – Allows us to determine if the relationship between X and Y is direct, spurious, or intervening. – Interaction ...
[49]
Instrumental Variables
Instrumental Variable estimation is used when the model has endogenous X's and can address important threats to internal validity. Learn more.
[50]
An Introduction to Propensity Score Methods for Reducing the ...
Several studies have demonstrated that propensity score matching eliminates a greater proportion of the systematic differences in baseline characteristics ...
[51]
Multiple Regression Residual Analysis and Outliers - JMP
One should always conduct a residual analysis to verify that the conditions for drawing inferences about the coefficients in a linear model have been met.
[52]
David Hume - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 26, 2001 · Causality works both from cause to effect and effect to cause: meeting someone's father may make you think of his son; encountering the son may ...Kant and Hume on Causality · Hume's Moral Philosophy · On Free Will · On Religion
[53]
Post hoc ergo propter hoc - PMC - NIH
This faulty reasoning is the most common cause of false and misleading conclusions of research results that are presented as medical news.
[54]
How to Distinguish Correlation from Causation in Orthopaedic ... - NIH
Correlation does not imply causation. Causation requires demonstrating directionality, cause preceding effect, and no third variable. Evaluate if the ...
[55]
https://www.jmp.com/en/statistics-knowledge-portal/what-is-multiple-regression/mlr-residual-analysis-and-outliers
[56]
Probabilistic Causation - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jul 11, 1997 · In probabilistic approaches to causation, causal relata are represented by events or random variables in a probability space.
[57]
Mediation Analysis - PMC - PubMed Central
Mediating variables are behavioral, biological, psychological, or social constructs that transmit the effect of one variable to another variable.
[58]
SEM: Path Analysis (David A. Kenny)
Aug 15, 2011 · This page discusses how to use multiple regression to estimate the parameters of a structural model.
[59]
Five Relationships Among Three Variables in a Statistical Model
The five relationships are: covariate correlated with X, covariate independent of X, spurious relationship, mediation, and moderation.
[60]
The Value of Suppressor Effects in Explicating the Construct Validity ...
Suppressor effects are operating when the addition of a predictor increases the predictive power of another variable. We argue that suppressor effects can play ...<|separator|>