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Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a natural phenomenon or observed pattern, formulated as a testable statement based on prior observations or existing knowledge, which serves as the foundation for empirical investigation in the scientific method.^[1] It must be specific, falsifiable, and grounded in evidence, allowing researchers to design experiments or analyses that either support or refute it through quantifiable data.^[1] For instance, a hypothesis predicts a relationship between variables, such as cause and effect, and commits to evaluation via rigorous scientific processes.^[2] In scientific research, hypotheses play a central role by guiding the formulation of research questions, directing data collection and analysis, and reducing the scope of potential explanations to foster efficient discovery.^[2] They are integral to the scientific method, where they follow initial observations and precede experimentation: after proposing a hypothesis, researchers test it through controlled experiments or models, assess results against predictions, and refine or discard it based on evidence.^[1] This iterative process ensures hypotheses are not mere guesses but logical, original propositions that advance knowledge, often linking to broader theories while avoiding trivial or untestable claims.^[1] High-quality hypotheses balance specificity in variables, relationships (e.g., directional or magnitude-based), and methodologies to enable clear inference.^[2] Hypotheses vary in form and purpose, with common types including the null hypothesis, which posits no effect or relationship between variables (e.g., "There is no difference in outcomes"), and the alternative hypothesis, which proposes an effect or difference to challenge the null.^[3] Other classifications encompass simple hypotheses (involving one predictor and one outcome), complex hypotheses (multiple predictors or outcomes), directional hypotheses (specifying the expected direction of effect, like an increase), non-directional hypotheses (indicating an effect without direction), associative hypotheses (describing correlations), and causal hypotheses (implying causation).^[4] These types are tailored to study designs, ensuring testability and alignment with evidence-based predictions.^[5] The concept of the hypothesis has deep philosophical roots, evolving from ancient inquiries into nature to a cornerstone of modern science through key developments by figures like Francis Bacon, who in 1620 advocated inductive reasoning from observations to hypotheses in The Novum Organum; David Hume, whose 1748 work emphasized empirical verification; Isaac Newton, who in the early 18th century stressed testable hypotheses in natural philosophy; and 20th-century thinkers Karl Popper (1959), who prioritized falsifiability, and Thomas Kuhn (1977), who examined hypotheses within paradigm shifts.^[6] This progression distinguishes hypotheses from mere models by embedding them with commitments to empirical testing and refutation, influencing experimental design across disciplines from physics to biology.^[7]

Core Concepts

Definition and Characteristics

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon, typically formulated as a tentative statement based on limited evidence or prior observations, which serves as a starting point for further empirical investigation and testing.^[8] It originates from inductive reasoning, where patterns in data or observations lead to a provisional supposition that can guide experimentation.^[9] Key characteristics of a hypothesis include testability, which requires that it can be empirically evaluated through observation or experiment; falsifiability, meaning it must be structured in a way that allows for potential refutation by contradictory evidence, as emphasized by Karl Popper in his demarcation criterion for scientific statements; predictive power, enabling the hypothesis to generate specific, verifiable forecasts about future observations; and parsimony, favoring the simplest explanation that accounts for the available data without unnecessary assumptions, in line with Occam's razor principle.^[8]^[10]^[8] Reproducibility is also inherent, as a robust hypothesis should yield consistent results when tested under similar conditions by independent researchers.^[11] A hypothesis differs fundamentally from a theory in scope, substantiation, and status: while a hypothesis is narrow, tentative, and requires initial validation, a theory is a broad, well-corroborated framework encompassing multiple hypotheses and extensive empirical support. The following table summarizes these distinctions:

Aspect	Hypothesis	Theory
Scope	Narrow, focused on a specific phenomenon or prediction	Broad, explaining a wide range of related phenomena
Evidence Base	Based on limited or preliminary evidence	Supported by substantial, repeated evidence
Status	Tentative and subject to testing or falsification	Well-substantiated and accepted as explanatory
Role in Science	Starting point for investigation	Comprehensive framework integrating observations

^[9]^[11] Hypothesis formation often proceeds from observation to supposition, commonly structured in an "if-then" format to clearly link a proposed cause to an expected effect, facilitating testable predictions. For instance, observing that fertilized plants grow faster might lead to the hypothesis: "If plants are given fertilizer, then they will exhibit increased growth rates compared to unfertilized plants."^[12] This structure ensures clarity and empirical focus, bridging initial curiosity with systematic inquiry.^[13]

Historical Origins

The term "hypothesis" derives from the ancient Greek word hypothesis (ὑπόθεσις), meaning "supposition," "foundation," or "base," referring to a premise or groundwork upon which an argument or explanation is built.^[14] This concept first appears prominently in Plato's dialogues, particularly in the Meno (circa 380 BCE), where Socrates employs a method of hypothesis to investigate the nature of virtue, treating it as a provisional assumption to explore further implications.^[15] In ancient Greek philosophy, Aristotle further developed the idea of hypothesis within his logical framework, using it to denote unproven premises in syllogistic reasoning, where hypotheses serve as starting points for deductive arguments that lead to conclusions about necessary truths.^[16] During the Hellenistic period, the concept evolved in mathematics, as seen in Euclid's Elements (circa 300 BCE), where postulates—self-evident assumptions akin to hypotheses—form the foundational suppositions from which geometric theorems are derived, emphasizing their role in rigorous proof structures.^[17] The notion of hypothesis persisted through the medieval period via scholasticism, where Aristotelian logic was integrated into Christian theology and philosophy, influencing dialectical methods to reconcile faith and reason through provisional suppositions in debates over natural and divine knowledge.^[18] In the Renaissance, Nicolaus Copernicus exemplified its application in astronomy with his heliocentric model, presented in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543) as a mathematical hypothesis to simplify planetary motion calculations, challenging geocentric assumptions without claiming absolute truth.^[19] The 17th century marked a pivotal shift toward empirical science, with Francis Bacon incorporating hypothesis into the scientific method in Novum Organum (1620), advocating for inductive testing of suppositions through experimentation to overcome biases and advance natural philosophy.^[20] In the 20th century, Karl Popper refined the concept in Logik der Forschung (1934), introducing falsifiability as a criterion for scientific hypotheses, arguing that testable refutability distinguishes empirical claims from metaphysics.^[10] Concurrently, Ronald A. Fisher formalized hypothesis testing in statistics during the 1920s, developing significance testing and null hypotheses to quantify evidence against suppositions in experimental data analysis.^[21] Thomas Kuhn later contextualized hypotheses within broader scientific paradigms in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), describing their role in normal science and their transformation during paradigm shifts that redefine foundational assumptions.^[22]

Scientific Contexts

Scientific Hypothesis

In the scientific method, a hypothesis serves as a pivotal intermediate step following initial observations and preceding experimentation. It proposes a tentative explanation for observed phenomena and generates specific, testable predictions that can be verified or refuted through empirical investigation. This role enables scientists to structure inquiries systematically, transforming vague questions into directed research efforts that advance knowledge.^[23]^[24] The formulation of a scientific hypothesis draws upon existing theoretical knowledge and empirical data to construct a proposed mechanism or relationship. It must be articulated in precise terms that allow for measurement of variables and potential disproof, embodying the principle of falsifiability as emphasized by philosopher Karl Popper, who argued that scientific claims gain legitimacy only if they risk empirical refutation. For instance, a hypothesis might predict that increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations will elevate global temperatures by a quantifiable amount, enabling direct testing against observational data.^[8] Strong scientific hypotheses adhere to several key criteria: they must be testable through reproducible experiments or observations; possess explanatory power by accounting for a range of phenomena beyond the initial observation; remain consistent with established scientific facts; and offer heuristic value by inspiring further investigations and novel predictions. These attributes ensure the hypothesis not only addresses the current puzzle but also contributes to broader theoretical development. The working hypothesis represents a subtype often used in preliminary stages to refine ideas iteratively.^[25] Through repeated empirical validation across diverse contexts, a well-supported hypothesis may elevate to the status of a scientific theory, providing a robust framework for understanding natural processes. Charles Darwin's hypothesis of natural selection, initially proposed in On the Origin of Species (1859), exemplifies this progression: extensive evidence from biogeography, paleontology, and genetics transformed it into the foundational theory of evolution by natural selection.^[26]^[27] In modern science, hypotheses increasingly incorporate computational elements, particularly in complex systems like climate modeling, where simulations test predictions about unobservable processes such as long-term atmospheric dynamics. These computational hypotheses address limitations in direct observation by integrating physical laws into numerical models that forecast outcomes, such as sea-level rise under varying emission scenarios, thereby extending empirical testing to future-oriented inquiries.

Working Hypothesis

A working hypothesis is defined as a provisional assumption or tentative explanation adopted to guide initial research efforts, serving as a basis for further investigation while remaining open to revision or rejection based on new evidence.^[28] This contrasts with more formalized scientific hypotheses by prioritizing adaptability in exploratory phases where complete data is unavailable.^[29] In research, working hypotheses are commonly employed in fields with high uncertainty, such as medicine and ecology, to direct preliminary studies and data collection. For instance, in medicine, researchers might initially assume that a novel drug reduces symptoms of a disease like hypertension, using this as a framework to design early trials and monitor outcomes before committing to rigorous testing.^[30] In ecology, a working hypothesis could posit that nutrient limitation causes slower tree growth at high elevations, prompting field experiments like fertilization to assess ecosystem responses.^[31] The primary advantages of working hypotheses lie in their ability to enable progress in data-scarce environments by providing a focused starting point that encourages iterative refinement through ongoing evidence gathering.^[32] This flexibility fosters exploratory inquiry without the constraints of premature finality, allowing researchers to adapt assumptions as patterns emerge.^[29] However, working hypotheses carry limitations, including the potential for confirmation bias if investigators fail to update or discard them in light of contradictory data, which can perpetuate flawed assumptions.^[33] A historical example of such discard is the geocentric model of the universe, initially adopted as a provisional explanation for celestial motions but ultimately rejected due to its inability to account for observations like planetary retrograde motion.^[34] A notable historical instance is William Harvey's 1628 proposal of a continuous blood circulation system, posited as a working hypothesis based on dissections and quantitative estimates of blood volume, which guided his experiments and was later confirmed through empirical validation.^[35]

Testing and Evaluation

Statistical Hypothesis Testing

In statistical hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis, denoted H_0, posits no effect or no difference, serving as the default assumption to be tested against observed data.^[36] The alternative hypothesis, H_a or H_1, proposes the existence of an effect or difference, often directional (greater than or less than) or non-directional.^[37] Formulation rules require H_0 to be specific and testable, typically stating equality (e.g., \mu = \mu_0), while H_a encompasses the complement, ensuring the test evaluates a clear contrast.^[38] These concepts originated with Ronald Fisher's emphasis on H_0 in significance testing and were formalized by Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson through the inclusion of H_a for decision-making.^[36] The testing process begins with collecting sample data under controlled conditions to estimate population parameters. A test statistic is then computed, quantifying how far the sample deviates from H_0; for instance, under normality assumptions, this might follow a t-distribution or F-distribution. The p-value is derived as the probability of observing a test statistic at least as extreme as the sample result, assuming H_0 is true.^[21] Rejection of H_0 occurs if the p-value falls below a pre-specified significance level \alpha, commonly 0.05, indicating the result is unlikely under the null.^[39] This threshold balances evidence against the risk of erroneous rejection, with Fisher originally advocating flexible p-value interpretation over rigid cutoffs.^[40] Key methods include the t-test for comparing means, developed by William Sealy Gosset in 1908 for small samples from normal distributions. The one-sample t-statistic is given by

t = \frac{\bar{x} - \mu_0}{s / \sqrt{n}},

where \bar{x} is the sample mean, \mu_0 is the hypothesized population mean, s is the sample standard deviation, and n is the sample size; degrees of freedom are n-1.^[41] For categorical data, Karl Pearson's chi-square test (1900) assesses independence or goodness-of-fit by comparing observed frequencies O_i to expected E_i:

\chi^2 = \sum \frac{(O_i - E_i)^2}{E_i},

distributed as chi-square with appropriate degrees of freedom under H_0.^[42] For multiple group means, Ronald Fisher's analysis of variance (ANOVA, 1920s) partitions total variance into between-group and within-group components, using the F-statistic:

F = \frac{\text{MSB}}{\text{MSW}},

where MSB is the mean square between groups and MSW is within; rejection occurs for large F if p < \alpha.^[43] Interpretation involves evaluating error risks: Type I error (\alpha) is rejecting a true H_0, while Type II error (\beta) is failing to reject a false H_0, as formalized by Neyman and Pearson.^[37] The power of the test, $1 - \beta, measures the probability of correctly rejecting H_0 when H_a holds, increasing with larger samples or effect sizes.^[44] Confidence intervals complement p-values by providing a range of plausible parameter values (e.g., 95% CI for \mu) at the $1 - \alpha level; if the interval excludes the null value, H_0 is rejected at \alpha.^[30] This duality links point estimation to hypothesis decisions without repeated testing.^[45] As a modern extension, Bayesian hypothesis testing offers an alternative to frequentist approaches by incorporating prior probabilities and updating beliefs via Bayes' theorem, yielding posterior odds or Bayes factors for comparing H_0 and H_a.^[46] Pioneered by Harold Jeffreys in the 1930s, it assigns prior mass to the point null and computes evidence ratios, addressing frequentist limitations like p-value dependence on sample size through direct model comparison.^[47] This framework is particularly useful in computational statistics for sequential updating and uncertainty quantification.^[48]

Role in Conceptual Frameworks and Measurement

Hypotheses play a pivotal role in bridging theoretical constructs and empirical research by operationalizing abstract ideas into testable, measurable variables. This process involves defining vague or intangible concepts—such as "intelligence" or "socioeconomic status"—through specific indicators that can be observed and quantified, like IQ scores or income levels combined with education attainment.^[49] For instance, in psychological research, the hypothesis that higher intelligence correlates with better academic performance might operationalize intelligence via standardized IQ tests, allowing for empirical verification.^[50] This operationalization ensures that hypotheses are not merely speculative but grounded in observable phenomena, facilitating the transition from conceptual frameworks to data-driven analysis.^[51] In measurement theory, hypotheses are integral to ensuring the reliability and validity of assessments used in testing. Reliability refers to the consistency of measurements across repeated trials, while validity assesses whether the measures accurately capture the intended constructs; construct validity, in particular, verifies that operationalized variables align with the underlying theoretical hypothesis.^[52] Seminal work by Paul Meehl emphasized that construct validation involves a network of hypotheses linking the measure to its theoretical domain, where empirical evidence supports or refutes these connections.^[53] For example, if a hypothesis posits that a new scale measures anxiety, construct validity would be established by correlating scores with related indicators like physiological responses, ensuring the measure truly reflects the abstract concept rather than unrelated factors. This alignment is crucial for robust hypothesis testing, as misaligned measurements can lead to invalid conclusions about theoretical relationships.^[54] Hypotheses function differently within deductive and inductive conceptual frameworks, shaping how researchers approach theory and data. In deductive approaches, hypotheses are derived top-down from established theories, predicting specific outcomes that are then tested empirically to confirm or refine the theory.^[55] Conversely, inductive approaches build hypotheses bottom-up from observed data patterns, generalizing to broader theories as evidence accumulates.^[56] These frameworks integrate measurement by requiring hypotheses to specify observable variables that align with the research paradigm; for instance, deductive social science studies might hypothesize that socioeconomic status influences health outcomes, measured via survey metrics like self-reported income and morbidity rates, drawing from foundational theories of social determinants.^[57] The World Health Organization highlights such hypotheses in linking lower socioeconomic status to poorer health, operationalized through indicators of access to education and healthcare, underscoring how measurement refines theoretical predictions.^[58] Contemporary challenges in big data and machine learning further complicate hypothesis integration into conceptual frameworks, particularly in generating and measuring hypotheses from vast datasets. Machine learning algorithms can identify patterns in large-scale data, suggesting inductive hypotheses, but interpreting these for theoretical alignment poses difficulties due to issues like overfitting and lack of interpretability.^[59] For example, while models might hypothesize associations in health data linking socioeconomic variables to outcomes, validating these requires bridging algorithmic outputs with reliable, valid measures, often revealing gaps in construct representation amid noisy or incomplete big data.^[60] Statistical tests serve as tools to validate such hypotheses, but the core challenge remains ensuring measurements capture theoretical essence without spurious correlations from data volume.^[61]

Broader Applications

Philosophical and Logical Uses

In logic, a hypothesis often appears in the form of a conditional proposition within hypothetical syllogisms, which are arguments structured around "if-then" statements to derive conclusions from premises.^[62] A prominent example is modus ponens, where one affirms the antecedent of a conditional to affirm the consequent: If P, then Q; P; therefore Q.^[62] This form, traceable to ancient Stoic logic, exemplifies deductive validity by ensuring that the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises without probabilistic assumptions.^[62] Philosophically, hypotheses underpin the hypothetico-deductive model of scientific explanation, which posits that theories are tested by deducing observable consequences from hypotheses and auxiliary assumptions, then comparing these predictions to empirical evidence. Carl G. Hempel formalized this approach in his 1966 work, emphasizing that confirmation arises when predictions align with observations, though he acknowledged limitations in handling probabilistic laws. Central debates in this framework contrast confirmationist views, which seek accumulating evidence to support hypotheses, with falsificationism, as articulated by Karl Popper, who argued that science advances by attempting to refute hypotheses rather than verify them conclusively.^[63] In epistemology, hypotheses function as provisional beliefs justified tentatively by available evidence, yet they remain open to revision due to the underdetermination problem, whereby multiple incompatible hypotheses can equally accommodate the same data.^[64] This issue, highlighted by Pierre Duhem and W. V. O. Quine, underscores the Duhem-Quine thesis: no single hypothesis can be tested in isolation, as empirical refutations always implicate a web of interconnected assumptions, rendering isolated falsification impossible. David Hume's earlier problem of induction further challenges hypotheses reliant on generalization, questioning the rational justification for assuming that unobserved future instances will resemble past observations, as such inferences rely on unproven uniformity in nature. Modern philosophy of science extends these concerns to domains like quantum mechanics, where competing interpretations—such as the Copenhagen hypothesis of wave function collapse versus the many-worlds hypothesis of branching realities—illustrate underdetermination, as each fits experimental data but diverges on ontological commitments.^[65] These debates reinforce hypotheses' role as tools for exploring epistemic limits rather than delivering absolute truths.^[65]

Applications in Other Fields

In legal contexts, hypotheses play a central role in constructing arguments and evaluating evidence, particularly through prosecutorial suppositions that posit the defendant's guilt based on available facts. For instance, prosecutors often formulate a working hypothesis, such as the defendant being the perpetrator of a crime, which is then tested against forensic and testimonial evidence during trial proceedings.^[66] The burden of proof serves as a mechanism analogous to hypothesis testing, where the prosecution must demonstrate beyond reasonable doubt that the hypothesis holds, while the defense challenges it without needing to prove an alternative.^[67] This process ensures that legal decisions are evidence-based rather than assumptive.^[68] In education and psychology, hypotheses inform formative theories of learning and development, guiding how educators and researchers understand cognitive processes. Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, for example, relies on hypotheses about how children progress through stages—such as the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), where infants form mental representations through sensory experiences and actions, and the formal operational stage (adolescence onward), where abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges.^[69] These hypotheses, derived from Piaget's observations and experiments, emphasize active construction of knowledge via assimilation (fitting new information into existing schemas) and accommodation (adjusting schemas to new information), influencing pedagogical approaches that prioritize hands-on exploration over rote memorization.^[70] Business and entrepreneurship leverage hypotheses to validate ideas and minimize risks, particularly through the lean startup methodology introduced by Eric Ries. In this framework, entrepreneurs form testable market hypotheses about customer needs and product viability, then conduct experiments like minimum viable products (MVPs) to gather data and pivot or persevere based on results.^[71] Ries's approach, detailed in his 2011 book The Lean Startup, treats business strategy as a series of validated learning cycles, reducing waste by focusing on empirical evidence rather than untested assumptions. In AI and data science, hypothesis-driven approaches enhance machine learning applications, such as anomaly detection, where models test assumptions about normal versus aberrant patterns in datasets. For example, techniques like generate-and-test methods employ a hypothesis-driven strategy, starting with broad assumptions about data normality and refining them through iterative searches to identify outliers in areas like network security or fraud detection.^[72] This contrasts with purely data-driven methods by incorporating prior domain knowledge to improve accuracy and interpretability. Interdisciplinary applications extend to environmental policy, where hypotheses bridge scientific data and decision-making; the Porter hypothesis, for instance, posits that stringent environmental regulations can spur innovation and competitiveness, supported by meta-analyses showing positive effects on firm performance in regulated sectors.^[73] A practical example of hypothesis application in web design is A/B testing, where the null hypothesis assumes no significant difference in user engagement between two page variants, such as layout A and redesigned layout B. Statistical analysis then determines if observed metrics—like click-through rates—reject the null in favor of an alternative hypothesis indicating improved performance, enabling data-informed optimizations.^[74]

Notable Instances

Famous Hypotheses

Famous hypotheses are selected based on their profound influence on scientific paradigms, extensive empirical testing, and enduring legacy across disciplines, often transforming foundational understandings despite initial skepticism. These examples illustrate how hypotheses serve as catalysts for major theoretical advancements, spanning fields from natural sciences to social sciences and philosophy. In Earth sciences, Alfred Wegener's continental drift hypothesis, proposed in 1912, posited that Earth's continents were once joined in a supercontinent called Pangaea and have since drifted apart due to horizontal movements across the surface. This idea, initially met with resistance due to the lack of a convincing mechanism, laid the groundwork for the theory of plate tectonics after mid-20th-century evidence from seafloor spreading and paleomagnetism confirmed it. In biology, Louis Pasteur's germ theory, developed through experiments in the 1860s, asserted that specific microorganisms cause infectious diseases, overturning the prevailing miasma theory and enabling breakthroughs in vaccination, antisepsis, and public health practices. Pasteur's work, including his 1861 memoir on airborne microbes, demonstrated the role of germs in fermentation and disease, fundamentally shaping modern medicine. In physics, Louis de Broglie's wave-particle duality hypothesis, introduced in his 1924 doctoral thesis, suggested that all matter exhibits both particle and wave properties, extending quantum concepts from light to electrons and other particles. This proposal, experimentally verified by the 1927 Davisson-Germer experiment, became a cornerstone of quantum mechanics, influencing wave mechanics and Schrödinger's equation. In economics, Eugene Fama's efficient market hypothesis, formalized in his 1970 review paper, argues that asset prices in financial markets fully reflect all available information, making it impossible to consistently outperform the market through stock picking or market timing. Widely tested and debated, it underpins modern portfolio theory and index investing, though anomalies like momentum effects have prompted refinements. In philosophy, Nick Bostrom's simulation hypothesis, articulated in his 2003 paper, contends that advanced civilizations could run numerous ancestor simulations indistinguishable from reality, implying a high probability that our world is one such simulation rather than base reality. This trilemma—human extinction before posthuman stages, disinterest in simulations, or our existence within one—has sparked interdisciplinary discussions in philosophy of mind, computer science, and cosmology, influencing debates on consciousness and existential risk.

Nomenclature and Honours

In geographical nomenclature, Mount Hypothesis is a prominent feature in Antarctica, rising to 1,094 meters on the Nordenskjöld Coast in Graham Land, characterized by its precipitous and rocky north slopes. It is named in appreciation of the role of hypotheses in scientific research. Other namings and awards highlight the centrality of hypothesis testing in statistical traditions. The Fisher Memorial Lecture, established by the Royal Statistical Society in honor of Ronald A. Fisher—who pioneered modern null hypothesis significance testing—annually recognizes contributions to statistical methods, including advancements in hypothesis evaluation. The 40th lecture was given in 2022.^[75] Similarly, the Guy Medal in Gold, also from the Royal Statistical Society, has been awarded for seminal work on hypothesis-related innovations, such as Jerzy Neyman's developments in confidence intervals and testing procedures in 1966. Hypotheses have earned high honors in scientific accolades, particularly through Nobel Prizes where theoretical propositions were validated experimentally. In 1979, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg for their formulation of the electroweak theory, a hypothesis unifying electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces that was later confirmed at particle accelerators. Other examples include the 2013 Nobel in Physiology or Medicine to James Rothman, Randy Schekman, and Thomas Südhof for discovering mechanisms of vesicle trafficking, building on the hypothesis of regulated cellular secretion. More recently, the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman for discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled effective mRNA vaccines, advancing hypotheses on RNA modification in immune responses.^[76] Broader recognition of hypotheses appears in dedicated academic outlets that prioritize speculative yet rigorous ideas. The journal Medical Hypotheses, published by Elsevier since 1975, serves as a forum for novel biomedical propositions, emphasizing theoretical papers that challenge conventional paradigms without requiring empirical validation at submission.^[77] This addresses a publishing gap for untested ideas, contrasting with empirical journals. In emerging fields like artificial intelligence, where machine learning aids hypothesis generation (e.g., in causal inference models), recognition lags; however, initiatives like the Digital Science Catalyst Grant have supported AI tools for hypothesis validation, such as the 2018 award to sci.AI for its platform accelerating scientific idea testing.^[78] Notable honors in the domain include:

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[PDF] Statistical Hypothesis Tests - Kosuke Imai
Mar 24, 2013 · Ronald Fisher invented the idea of statistical hypothesis testing. ... p-value is less than the pre-specified threshold α and retain the ...
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Wait, I Can't Use p < 0.05? - University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Jun 1, 2024 · Fisher formed his suggested p < 0.05 as a simple cut-off of significance in 1925. His reasoning was simple: “p = 0.05, or 1 in 20, is 1.96 or nearly 2.
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T Test - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
William Sealy Gosset first described the t-test in 1908, when he published his article under the pseudonym 'student' while working for a brewery.Missing: equation | Show results with:equation
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[PDF] Karl Pearson's chi-square tests - ERIC
The logic of hypothesis testing was first developed by. Karl Pearson (1857-1936) (Magnello, 2005). Chi-square goodness of fit tests, independence tests, and.
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ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) - Statistics Solutions
In particular, Ronald Fisher developed ANOVA in 1918, expanding the capabilities of previous tests by allowing for the comparison of multiple groups at once.
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Predictive power of statistical significance - PMC - NIH
Neyman and Pearson[4] raised the question that Fisher failed to, namely that with data interpretation there may be not only a type I error, but a type II error ...
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Hypothesis Testing and Confidence Intervals - Statistics By Jim
Confidence intervals and hypothesis testing are closely related because both methods use the same underlying methodology. Additionally, there is a close ...
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A Review of Bayesian Hypothesis Testing and Its Practical ... - NIH
Jan 21, 2022 · Harold Jeffreys's Default Bayes Factor Hypothesis Tests: Explanation, Extension, and Application in Psychology. J. Math. Psychol. 2016;72:19 ...
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[PDF] Harold Jeffreys's Default Bayes Factor Hypothesis Tests
Using Jeffreys's Bayes factor hypothesis tests, researchers can grade the decisiveness of the evidence that the data provide for a point null hypothesis H0 ...
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Interpreting frequentist hypothesis tests: insights from Bayesian ...
Oct 4, 2023 · Over the last decade, there has been increasing interest in Bayesian methods as an alternative to frequentist hypothesis testing.
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Operationalization | A Guide with Examples, Pros & Cons - Scribbr
May 6, 2022 · Operationalization means turning abstract concepts into measurable observations. It involves clearly defining your variables and indicators.
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[PDF] Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement
Operationalization moves the researcher from the abstract level to the empirical level, where variables rather than concepts are the focus. It refers to the ...Missing: measurable | Show results with:measurable
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When numbers fail: do researchers agree on operationalization of ...
Operationalization is the process of translating theoretical constructs into measurable laboratory quantities. Thus, the validity of operationalization is ...
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Construct Validity: Advances in Theory and Methodology - PMC
Construct validation tests are also tests of the validity of the theory that specifies a measure's presumed meaning.
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[PDF] CONSTRUCT VALIDITY IN PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS1 - Paul Meehl
In arriving at diverse predictions, the hypothesis of test validity is connected each time to a subnetwork largely independent of the portion previously used.
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Construct Validity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Construct validity is defined as the extent to which the object of study accurately represents the underlying theory of the study.
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Inductive vs. Deductive Research Approach | Steps & Examples
Apr 18, 2019 · Inductive reasoning aims at developing a theory. Deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory. They are often used together.Deductive research approach · Combining inductive and...
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2.3 Inductive or Deductive? Two Different Approaches
The deductive approach involves beginning with a theory, developing hypotheses from that theory, and then collecting and analyzing data to test those hypotheses ...
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A Review of the Relationship between Socioeconomic Status ... - NIH
Jun 29, 2023 · A large proportion of studies found that an SES change impacts health. Evidence suggests that those with consistently high SES have the best health outcomes.
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Social determinants of health - World Health Organization (WHO)
People who have limited access to quality housing, education, social protection and job opportunities have a higher risk of illness and death. Research shows ...
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[PDF] Machine Learning as a Tool for Hypothesis Generation
Feb 15, 2023 · The challenge of expanding the set of hypotheses for understanding this variation without losing the benefit of interpretability is the ...
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Scientific Hypothesis Generation and Validation: Methods, Datasets ...
May 6, 2025 · The pursuit of novelty and feasibility in hypothesis creation is central to scientific progress, yet LLMs face fundamental challenges in both ...
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[PDF] machine learning as a tool for hypothesis generation* jens ludwig ...
Jul 23, 2025 · A key challenge is that we require hypotheses that are interpretable to people. One important goal of science is to generalize knowledge to new ...
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Ancient Logic - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 13, 2006 · ... hypothetical syllogisms were interpreted as propositional-logical arguments of the kind. If p, then q. If q, then r. Therefore, if p, then r ...Pre-Aristotelian Logic · Aristotle · The early Peripatetics... · The Stoics
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[PDF] Science as Falsification - by Karl R. Popper - Stephen Hicks
5. Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it, or to refute it. Testability is falsifiability; but there are degrees of testability: some ...
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Underdetermination of Scientific Theory
Aug 12, 2009 · The simple idea that the evidence available to us at a given time may be insufficient to determine what beliefs we should hold in response to it.
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Philosophical Issues in Quantum Theory
Jul 25, 2016 · This article is an overview of the philosophical issues raised by quantum theory, intended as a pointer to the more in-depth treatments of other entries in the ...Introduction · Quantum theory · The measurement problem · Ontological Issues
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Law 101: Legal Guide for the Forensic Expert | Formulating a ...
Aug 7, 2023 · Example: The prosecution's hypothesis was that the defendant, charged with burglary, was: The perpetrator of the burglary. The seller of the ...Missing: arguments prosecutorial
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The Legal Concept of Evidence - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nov 13, 2015 · The law assigns the legal burden of proof between parties to a dispute. For instance, at a criminal trial, the accused is presumed innocent ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Assessing evidence and testing appropriate hypotheses - PMC - NIH
Normally, it is the responsibility of the prosecution (only) to propose its hypothesis, such as 'defendant committed crime X'. If the prosecution cannot prove ...
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Cognitive Development - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 23, 2023 · Piaget suggested that when young infants experience an event, they process new information by balancing assimilation and accommodation.
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Piaget's Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development
Oct 22, 2025 · Piaget proposed that children's intellectual development is not simply about accumulating more information, but involves qualitative changes in ...
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Methodology - The Lean Startup
“Startup success can be engineered by following the process, which means it can be learned, which means it can be taught.” - Eric Ries. The Lean Startup ...
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[PDF] Machine Learning for Host-based Anomaly Detection
data driven approach. Generate and test adopts a hypothesis driven approach, where a general to specific search is usually performed in the hypothesis space.
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Revisiting the Porter hypothesis: a multi-country meta-analysis of the ...
Feb 8, 2024 · Since the early 1990s, researchers and policy makers have provided increasing insights into the Porter hypothesis, suggesting that environmental ...
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Understanding null hypothesis in A/B testing and experimentation
Jan 4, 2025 · The null hypothesis assumes there's no significant difference between the control and treatment groups, while the alternative hypothesis proposes that there is ...
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Kanti Mardia to give Fisher Memorial Lecture - Royal Statistical Society
Oct 21, 2022 · The 40th Fisher Memorial Lecture will be given by Professor Kanti Mardia at the Mathematical Institute, Oxford, at 5.30pm on 18 November ...
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Medical Hypotheses | Journal | ScienceDirect.com by Elsevier
Medical Hypotheses is a forum for ideas in medicine and related biomedical sciences. It will publish interesting and important theoretical papers.Guide for authorsAll issues
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Artificial Intelligence Hypothesis Validation Platform sci.AI Wins ...
Apr 4, 2018 · Artificial intelligence hypothesis validation platform sci.AI wins Digital Science Catalyst Grant · AI tool that helps researchers to see if ...